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Book Reference

A Rulebook for Arguments

Weston, A. (2009). A rulebook for arguments (4th ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company

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A Rulebook for Arguments Fourth Edition

Anthony Weston

IX

Oral Arguments

Sometimes you will find yourself arguing in face -to-face public settings: debating in front of a class; arguing for a bigger share of the student gov- ernment budget or speaking for your neighborhood at City Council; in- vited to make a presentation on a subject of your interest or expertise by a group that is interested. Sometimes your audience will be friendly, some- times they will be neutral but willing to listen, and sometimes they will really need to be won over. At all times, you'll want to present good ar- guments effectively.

All of the rules in the earlier chapters of this book apply to oral argu- ments as well as argumentative essays. Here are a few further rules for oral arguments in particular.

Reacl1 out to your audience

In making an oral argument you are quite literally asking for a hearing. You want to be heard: to be listened to with respect and at least some degree of open-rnindedness. But your hearers may or may not start out respectful or open-minded, and may not even bring a genuine interest in your topic . You need to reach out to them to create the kind of hearing you want to have.

One way to reach out is through your own enthusiasm. Bring some of your own interest and energy for the topic into your talk early on. It per- sonalizes you and notches up the energy in the room.

I appreciate the chance to speak to you today. In this talk, I want to put forward a new idea on the subject of student exchange programs. It's

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68 41 . BE FULLY PRESENT

a proposal I find exciting and inspiring, and I'm hoping that, by the end, you will too .

Notice also that this way of talking itself displays the respectful and inviting attitude toward your hearers that you ' d like them to take toward you . You may not get it back from them, even so- but you certainly won ' t get it from them if you don ' t bring it to them in the first place. Arguing face to face can be a powerful thing , and done deftly and persistently, it can reinforce and build respect itself, even across major differences.

Patience is helpful too- and again, show it. If your aim is to persuade your audience of a view they currently do not accept, do not act as though they should immediately change their minds and rise as one to agree with you . People typically don't work that way. Instead, just ask for their open- minded consideration. Expect them to be willing to consider changing (and of course, again, you will be most successful at this if you are visi- bly willing to consider changing yourself). Pushing harder may just bring up those unpleasant stereotypes of "argument" that drive people further into rigid thinking.

Never give an audience the feeling that you are talking down to them. They may know less than you do about the subject, but they can certainly learn, and it is pretty likely that you have some learning to do too . You're not there to rescue them from their ignorance, but rather to share some new information or ideas that you hope they'll find as intriguing and sug- gestive as you do. Again, approach your audience from enthusiasm, not some sort of superiority.

Respect your audience, then, and also respect yourself. You are there because you have something to offer, and they are there either because they want to hear it or because it is required by their jobs or studies. You do not need to apologize for taking their time. Just thank them for listen- ing, and use the time well.

A public talk or speecl:f is a face-to-face occasion. It is' not simply a pub- lic version of what we do priv;ately when Vo{_e read. After all, if people just wanted your words, reading would be much more efficient. They are there partly for your presence.

42, SIGNPOST YOUR ARG UMENT 69

So. be pre ent! For starters, look at your audience. Take the time to connect. \1eet people's eyes and hold them. People who get nervous speaking to groups are sometimes advised to talk to one person in the group, as if one to one. Do so, if you need to, but then go a step further : talk to your whole audience one to one, one person at a time.

Speak with expression. Do not read your pre-prepared words as if it were a chore. Remember, you're talking to people here! Imagine that you are having an animated conversation with a friend (OK, maybe a little one-sided ... ). Now speak to your audience in the same spirit.

Writers seldom get to see their readers. When you speak in public, though , your hearers are right there in front of you, and you have constant feedback from them. Use it. Do people meet your eyes with interest? What is the feeling in the audience as a whole? Are people leaning for- ward to hear better ... or not? If not, can you pick up the energy? Even if you have a presentation to get through, you can still adjust your style, or stop to explain or review a key point if necessary. When you are not sure of your audience, plan in advance to be able to adjust to different re- sponses. Have an extra story or illustration ready to go, just in case.

By the way, you are not glued to the floor behind the podium (should you have one). You can walk around or at least come out from behind the lectern. Depending on your own comfort level and the occasion, you can establish a much more engaged feeling in the room by visibly engaging with your audience yourself.

Signpost your argument

Readers can take in an argument selectively. They can stop and think, double back, or choose to drop it entirely and move on to something else. Your listeners can't do any of these things . You set the pace for everyone.

So be considerate. On the whole, oral arguments need to offer more "signposting" and repetition than written arguments. At the beginning, you may need to summarize the argument more fully, and then you need to refer more regularly back to the summary, or what Rule 36 called the "road map." For your summary, use labels like "Here is my basic argu- ment." For your premises, as the argument turns, say something like, "We come now to the second [third, fourth, etc.] basic premise of my argu- ment. ... "Summarize again at the end. Pause to mark important transi- tions and to give people time to think.

70 43. OFFER SOMETHING POSITIVE

In my college debate training I was taught to literally repeat my key claims word for word-that's right, to literally repeat my key claims word for word-mainly because other people were writing them down. Some- times I still do this as a teacher: it shows that you know people are lis- tening hard and that they may want and need the key points signposted. In other settings, this might seem odd. Even if you don't repeat the key points word for word, at least mark them out in some way, and make it clear that-and why-you are doing so.

Be especially alert to your audience at important transitions . Look around and make sure that most of your hearers are ready to move with you. You'll communicate better and show your audience that you actu- ally care that they take in and understand what you are saying.

Offer something positive

Offer your audience something to do, something to hope for, some sense of possibility-at least some !kind of positive spin.

NO:

This city stinks at conserving water! Even with the reservoirs down to a month's supply, we've only been able to cut back consumption by 25 percent, and people still don't get it about not washing their cars or leaving their sprinklers going forever ....

Maybe, maybe .. . But when we focus on the severity of a problem, we also run the risk of making people feel like nothing can be done about it. Couldn' t the same issue be framed in a more empowering way?

YES:

This city needs to do better at conserving water. We've been able to cut back consumption by 25 percent so far, but with the reservoirs down to a month's supply, people should really start seeing the need to stop washing their cars or leaving their sprinklers going ....

These are exactly the same facts, even similar phrases and sentencc;s, but the overall feeling is sharply different.

The point is not to be mindlessly optimistic. We should not ignore what is negative. But when we let it fill the screen entirely, it becomes the

44. USE VISUAL AIDS SPARINGLY 71

only reality. We create more of it, we preoccupy ourselves with it, and it gets our energy and attention , even if we wish to resist it.

Instead, give your audience some direction forward, some way to re- spond, something to do, not just something to resist or avoid or lament. Part of the power of Martin Luther King, Jr.'s famous "I Have a Dream" speech is that it is, after all, about dreams: about positive visions for a shared and just future. "I have a dream that the children of former slaves and the children of former slave-owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood .... " Imagine if he'd spoken only about night- mares instead: "I have a nightmare that the children of former slaves and the children of former slave-owners will never be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood ... . " In one way this is exactly the same idea-but if King had put it this way, would his great speech live on today?

All arguments-not just oral arguments-should try to offer some- thing positive. Again, though, there is a special energy in oral arguments, which is why I place this rule in this chapter. An audience's optimism and excitement can be infectious, and it can become a power of its own, as can a sense of gloom and disempowerment. Which will you choose to create?

Use visual aids sparingly

PowerPoint has become a familiar accompaniment to visual presenta- tions. Some people even expect to read presentations from computer pro- jectors as a matter of course.

Nonetheless, audiences may quickly tire of seeing totally different sub- jects all presented in the same way, often using the very same back- grounds and formats. Then too, PowerPoint can make it too easy to think that you've got "content" when mostly what you have is just a nicely dec- orated presentation. Critics have also pointed out that PowerPoint for- mats tend to oversimplify. The writing on slides typically is very clipped; charts and graphs can display little detail. And computer glitches in- evitably lead to distractions and sometimes total disasters.

So think carefully about what kinds of visual aids you really need- if any. Learn PowerPoint if you have to (students going into business may need it), but do not assume that it is the only way to make a presentation. Try for something more engaging and fully focused. Perhaps you can ask

72 45. fND IN STYLE

for a show of hands on some subject, or solicit some structured audience participation. Read briefly from a book or article. Put up a short video clip or some graphs or data, if needed, but then turn the screen off to continue talking. At the very least, don't let your presentation be reduced to a tour through some slides-for that can be done just as well, or better, without you.

If you really want or need to use visual aids, consider paper handouts. You can include far more information- complex words and pictures; graphs, data, references, links- including much that can be left for people to read before or after the presentation if they choose. Distribute your handouts in advance, or only when you are ready to use them, or for reference at the end, and encourage people to take them when they go.

First, end on time. rFind~out he w lon,g yol} ai.supposed to speak, and don't go over. You know frfun~your{,.W_~!:!X:Periences as a listener that nothing irritates an audience more than a speaker who goes on too long.

Second, don't just peter out.

NO:

Well, I guess that's about all the time I have. Why don't we stop and chat a bit if any of these ideas have interested you?

Come to a rousing end. End in style, with flair or a flourish .

YES:

In this talk I have tried to suggest that real happiness is attainable af- ter all, and by everyone; that it takes no special luck or wealth; indeed that its preconditions lie within easy reach, all around us. I thank you for your attention, my friends, and naturally wish you all the greatest happiness yourselves!