ems unit VI case study

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UNIT VI STUDY GUIDE

Using Communication to Influence Others

Unit Learning Outcomes Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

1. Discuss the importance of having a media relations policy. 1.1 Understand the benefits of apologia to influence others perception

and describe the strategies associated with apologia. 1.2 Describe the strategies of image repair and provide examples of the

benefits of engaging in this activity. 1.3 Understand dramatism and list the key stages necessary for

interpreting drama. 5. Describe the importance of maintaining a positive image in the

community. 5.1 Describe the strategies of image repair and provide examples of the

benefits of engaging in this activity. 5.2 Understand dramatism and list the key stages necessary for

interpreting drama. 5.3 Explain the benefits of the use of narrative theory and define the

presuppositions of the narrative paradigm. 7. Develop a policy for responding to media requests.

7.1 Describe the strategies of image repair and provide examples of the benefits of engaging in this activity.

7.2 Understand the benefits of apologia to influence others perception and describe the strategies associated with apologia.

7.3 Explain the benefits of the use of narrative theory and define the presuppositions of the narrative paradigm.

Unit Lesson Introduction People communicate for many reasons. They want to inform, share, celebrate, justify, sympathize, and influence. In the realm of crisis management, communication is often described as rhetoric. In applying rhetoric to the crisis management world, it is viewed as an attempt to motivate and influence others into action, or into believing a certain set of ideas. The morality of rhetoric is based on the way it is used, not on the rhetoric itself. In the after-math of a crisis, rhetoric focuses on the evidence or facts of the event, the intent of the organization engaging in rhetoric prior to the crisis, and who is responsible for the event. How communication is used post-crisis is important in determining how a community responds, as well as how an organization (or how a community’s leadership) survives the crisis. Apologia While it may look similar, apologia is different from apology. An apology is viewed as an attempt to express regret and ask for forgiveness from those impacted by the actions of the individual making the apology. The term apologia references an individual or an organization’s active attempts to defend itself from accusations of wrongdoing (Sellnow & Seeger, 2013). In order to participate in this type of rhetoric, organizations may utilize three strategies.

Reading Assignment Chapter 7: Theories of Influence and Crisis Communication

Key Terms 1. Apologia 2. Dramatism 3. Kategoria 4. Mortification 5. Purification

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The first strategy is known as reformative strategies. Reformative strategies are used to maintain or redevelop an organization’s credibility with the community they serve. One method used in the reformative strategy is denial. That is, the organization (or individual) makes statements that remove them from any involvement with the incident. As example of denial is when a fire chief makes a statement saying that the department does not use a job candidate’s race as a factor in the hiring decision. They may also use bolstering techniques when engaged in the reformative strategy. Bolstering, which is often used in conjunction with denial, is an attempt to realign the organization (or individual) with the values that are important to those they serve. For example, a fire chief accused of hiring based on race, may give a statement regarding the importance of diversity. The second strategy is the transformative strategy. An organization that engages in this strategy attempts to change the meaning and interpretation that a person has placed on the circumstances attached to the event. To do this, the speaker chooses from two methods. The first method is called differentiation. In differentiation an organization attempts to separate “some fact, sentiment, object, or relationship from some larger context” (Sellnow & Seeger, 2013, p. 166). They use this point to draw attention away from areas that might be less appealing. For example, a fire chief may choose to focus discussion surrounding the closing of a fire station, not on the impact to the immediate community, but on the larger number of firefighters that will staff the remaining trucks. Additionally the method of transcendence could be used if engaged in the transformative strategy. Transcendence is a strategy that partners the facts of the current situation with a view that the public might not have previously considered. Postures of Self-Defense These previously mentioned strategies can be used in various formations to develop the postures of self-defense. These are used as oppostunities to protect an individual/organization from the impacts of the crisis. The four postures are each comprised of two of the four strategies.

 Absolutive: This strategy is comprised of denial and differentiation. When an individual engages in the absolutive posture they seek to clear their names by being acquitted by the public (Sellnow & Seeger, 2013).

 Vindictive: This strategy is comprised of denial and transcendence. When an individual chooses to use this posture they are looking to preserve their reputation, while at the same time increase their value in the hierarchy.

 Explanative: This is the strategy used when an individual uses bolstering and differentiation. When using this strategy an individual is looking to provide clarity to their motives, hoping that doing so they will not be judged negatively for those actions.

 Justificative: Bolstering and transcendence are the components of this strategy. In this strategy the organization is looking to not only justify and assist others in understanding their actions, but to also seek approval.

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Apologia As a whole, the theory of apologia is one of the first that was widely recognized and utilized in the communication discipline (Sellnow & Seeger, 2013). As a result, it provides a basis for many of the other theories of influence and crisis communication. However, as a theory, apologia is mainly descriptive. That is, it provides a description of why, but not a plan for how. As such, it does not provide a method for reviewing the success of the speaker or provide a direction for corrective action. Image Repair An organization or individual that has been involved in a crisis is faced with the potential tarnishing of the image they have worked to develop. An ambulance company that is in the news as the result of a death of a patient in their care faces the potential that their image as a strong patient care provider will be questioned. A fire department that faces the crisis of a member being arrested for arson will lose the trust of the community their serve. A police department is faced with image repair needs when a video is released that shows potential police brutality. Each of these organizations must ask itself which accusations are a threat to the image, and what audiences are important to the organization. Overall, the image repair approach looks at different communication strategies that can provide improvement in the organization’s image. One of the primary focuses is the belief that, in order to repair an image effectively, the organization must immediately take responsibility for the incident and take corrective action that meets the values of the community they serve. There are five general strategies used when an organization is engaged in image repair. The first, denial, is best when used in conjunction with shifting blame. Not only does the organization deny their involvement, but they shift blame to another individual or organization. Consider the example of an incident where a commercial structure burns down. The fire department is blamed for poor response. The fire chief may choose to respond by saying that their response was adequate, but the water system failed to support the needs of the fire department. But, the speaker must be careful where they redirect the blame and make sure it is not a victim of the incident, as this may actually cause additional damage to the image. An additional strategy is evading responsibility. Using this strategy, an organization admits a connection to the crisis, but denies that they hold any responsibility for it occurring. In order to evade responsibility, there are four methods: provocation (lack of responsibility because the incident occurred as a result of someone else’s actions), defeasibility (lacking information), accident, or done with good intentions. An organization may choose to repair their image through an attempt at reducing offensiveness. Three of the methods for reducing offensiveness have already been discussed: bolstering, differentiation, and transcendence. Additionally, minimization, attacking the accuser, and compensation are included as methods to reduce the offensiveness of the action. Minimization finds the spokesperson trying to lessen the negative view of the crisis or the overall impact. By attacking the accuser the spokesperson decreases the credibility of the individual making the accusations, and compensation seeks to resolve a crisis by providing financial security, which will shift the focus off of the incident itself and on to the future.

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Corrective action is the fourth strategy used to engage in image repair. Corrective action is when an organization commits to taking the steps to repair its image by not only stopping the action that caused the crisis, but by publicly taking steps to prevent the actions from occurring in the future. For instance, consider the previous situation of the release of a video that shows potential police brutality. The police department may hold that officer accountable and inform the public that they are sending all officers through remedial training to prevent future incidents form occurring. The final image repair strategy that people engage in is mortification. Mortification is the only image repair strategy that requires the organization to directly take blame for the incident. After they have done so, the expectation is that they will then ask for forgiveness from those impacted. When an individual engages in mortification, they often find themselves utilizing the corrective action strategy as well to show their dedication to preventing the incident from happening again. Strengths and Weaknesses of Image Repair Image repair is one of the most widely accepted and utilized methods of crisis communication. Its strength is found in the ability for the methodologies to be adapted by all kinds of organizations: government, private, and public. However, the concern about the use of image repair is that many of the strategies described in the theory provide an opportunity for organizations to avoid punishment for the actions that have caused the incident. Additionally the theory does not provide guidance for action, but rather a description of potential actions that can be taken. Kategoria Kategoria takes a different approach from apologia and image repair. This approach to influence and crisis communication develops a strategy for persuasive attack, focusing on the accusations of guilt. According to researchers, persuasive attack requires two elements for a response to be warranted. The first is that the organization on the receiving end of the accusations must believe that the accusations create a negative view of the organization. The second element is that the organization that has been accused must be viewed as being response, whether in whole or in part, for the actions they have been accused of (Sellnow & Seeger, 2013). The accusations must set these beliefs in the minds of the audience. Increasing the Target’s Perceived Responsibility for the Act When accusations are made against an organization the accusers can increase the perceived responsibility through various methods. By raising the perceived responsibility, an organization that stands accused will need to work even harder to reclaim the trust of those they serve. The first method to increase the perceived responsibility is to increase the offensiveness that is caused by the incident. This can be done by focusing on the damage caused by the actions (or inactions) of the organization, drawing attention to the organization’s lack of integrity, or bringing the focus to the victims created by the event. Additionally they can focus on the negative effects caused by the incident, both short-term and long-term. Another option is that the accuser can draw attention to discrepancies between the words and actions of the organization that is deemed as “at fault”. Regardless of the method, the ability to increase the perceived offensiveness of the act increases the public’s desire to see action and to perceive the organization as fully responsible

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Kategoria Kategoria provides a framework for organizations to understand how those in the public may react to a perceived crisis caused by the actions, or inactions of the organization. It provides an understanding of how individuals who feel victimized will bring attention to their issues. It does not, however, provide a framework from response to the actions of the accuser. Dramatism Society is based on drama. It is expected that human action will be unappreciated by some and greatly appreciated by others. People will react to those actions and the cycle will start again. With this cycle some researchers believe that there is a recognizable pattern in crisis response. These same researchers believe that there are five key stages to assist in interpreting the drama. Order is the first stage of crisis drama. Society requires order and thrives when order is in place. The leadership hierarchy in organizations and government create an order for people to follow. When order is interrupted as the result of a crisis, then problems occur. Pollution is the second key stage. Researchers believe that individuals will develop a frame of acceptance through which they are able to view a current crisis. These frameworks also assist in determining an individual’s role during crisis response. An individual may reject this view and role if they believe that the social order is impure, or polluted. Often this rejection occurs because they do not believe that they are in the right position in the hierarchy of power. With rejection comes the potential for an individual to experience guilt, the third key stage. When the hierarchical structure imposed by society demands action, individuals may willingly (or unwillingly) violate the structure by not meeting the demands. This will ultimate lead to guilt. Purification of guilt, the fourth key strategy, goes hand-in-hand with the experience of guilt. When an individual experiences feelings of guilt, they will attempt to conceal that guilt. They may do so through victimage, a process of offering a scapegoat to the guilt felt by others. This scapegoat takes the blame for others’ actions. In contrast, purification of guilt may occur through mortification. Mortification occurs when the individual experiencing guilt accepts full responsibility and vows to make good on their earlier transgressions. Finally, there is redemption. Redemption is that momentary balance that is achieved when the crisis has been averted and those impacted have reached middle ground in both blame and corrective action. However, because crises are bound to occur, the cycle of dramatism will once again begin, causing people to start over in their response. The Pentad The pentad provides a framework for developing and analyzing communications during a crisis. The pentad are the five elements believed to be present in every crisis situation. According to Burke (Sellnow & Seeger, 2013) they are:

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Act: What actions occurred to cause the crisis?

 Scene: Where is the crisis impact most prevalent?

 Agent(s): Who are the individuals who have the primary role in response or communication?

 Agency: What options are available for resolving this crisis and preventing the crisis from occurring?

 Purpose: What are/were the intentions of the primary agents prior to the crisis and during the crisis resolution process?

The answers to these questions may assist an agency in developing communications to reach out to those individuals they feel are the agents in the crisis and work to achieve the purpose. Strengths and Weaknesses of Dramatism The theory of dramatism provides a more inclusive approach to assess the attitudes that are present from pre-crisis to organizational redemption. It also assists in looking, not only at whether or not the crisis has been resolved, but also provides terminology to look at the effectiveness of the crisis resolution. However, dramatism is best applied to the broad view of crisis management and has little application to individual aspects of a crisis. Narrative Theory Telling stories is a natural act for humans. We create stories about all activities, especially to share information with those who may not have experienced all aspects of an event. As it relates to crisis communication, narration is an opportunity to assist an individual in understanding what has happened and why, as well as give them an idea of what steps will be taken to respond to the crisis. In order to best understand the narrative theory there are five paradigms that must be kept in mind. They are:

1. By nature, humans are storytellers. 2. The mode of human decision making and communication is based on

“good reasons,” which may vary depending not only on the situation, but also on the mode of communication utilized.

3. Development of good reasoning is ruled by history, biography, culture, and character.

4. An individual’s narrative beings will assist in determining the rationality of the narrative and their ability to apply it to their situation.

5. Stories are an inherent expectation of life, which individuals must select from in order to respond and survive.

As with any story, the narrative theory reinforces that the believability of the communication is dependent on the perceived reasonableness of the story. If the communication is received by an individual who does not believe that the actions or accuracy of the statement hold true, than the narrative will fail in helping the organization influence that individual. Strengths and Weaknesses of Narrative Theory The narrative theory provides a broad view of review of communication and the effectiveness of the communication. It can assist in developing a response plan based on the assumptions that are held in the narrative theory. However, it is less applicable when looking at the effectiveness of a single message.

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Conclusion Persuasive communication is important in both crisis management and crisis response. Communication that effectively influences individuals can not only provide support in the response, but set the tone for short- and long-term recovery for the organization. Whether internally providing the opportunity to rebuild support, or externally rebuilding the community and the community’s trust, using communication to influence others is an important step in crisis mitigation.

Reference

Sellnow, T. L., & Seeger, M. W. (2013). Theorizing crisis communication. London, England: Wiley-Blackwell.