io psy unit V article review

PSY 4680, Industrial Organizational Psychology 1

UNIT V STUDY GUIDE

Employee Performance and Training

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit V Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

1. Give examples of task performance, organizational citizenship behaviors, and counterproductive work behaviors.

2. Evaluate the role of personal factors in employee performance. 3. Analyze the role of environmental factors in employee performance. 4. Review research findings regarding counterproductive work behaviors. 5. Explain the five steps to developing a training program (i.e. setting

objectives). 6. Describe design factors that affect transfer of training. 7. Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of training methods. 8. Explain the processes involved in evaluating a training program.

Unit Lesson Employee Performance Employee performance is key to organizational success. I/O psychologists recognize three major areas of performance, including task performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and counterproductive work behaviors. Task performance reflects the degree to which one is meeting the requirements of the job, as defined in the job description. Organizational citizenship behaviors are helping behaviors, which are not part of the job description, such as helping a colleague in need or cleaning up a spill in the office. Counterproductive work behaviors are those which detract from performance and include a range of “bad” behaviors, such as excessive tardiness, bullying in the workplace, and even illegal activities, such as theft (Spector, 2012). I/O psychologists have increasingly devoted more attention to organizational citizenship behaviors, as well as counterproductive work behaviors. For example, researchers are investigating questions such as which personality traits are more likely to predict organizational citizenship behaviors versus task performance (Chiaburu, Oh, Berry, Li & Gardner, 2011). Other researchers are exploring the dark side of the leadership, such as destructive leadership approaches, in response to corporate scandals, such as Enron (e.g., Einarsen, Aasland, & Skogstad, 2007). The organizational environment also plays a key role in determining performance. For example, research suggests that employees are more likely to engage in destructive behaviors when they feel that they have limited control. I/O psychologists work with managers and organizations to assess performance and to develop interventions to increase positive performance and to decrease counterproductive work behavior (Spector, 2012).

Reading Assignment Chapter 7: Training Chapter 10: Productive and Counterproductive Employee Behavior

Suggested Reading See information below.

Learning Activities (Non-Graded) See information below.

PSY 4680, Industrial Organizational Psychology 2

Employee Training In previous units, you learned about the performance appraisal, which assesses the degree to which employees are meeting the demands of the job. You also learned about one way in which employers attempt to improve performance through motivating employees, such as ensuring that the characteristics of the job are enriching. However, even when employees are highly motivated and experiencing high satisfaction and commitment at work, they may still perform poorly. For example, they may lack critical knowledge, skills, abilities, or other characteristics needed to perform the job. Some characteristics, such as the personality of the employee, are seen as stable and are typically not something that the employer would attempt to change. However, other characteristics, such as knowledge and skills, can often be enhanced through training. I/O psychologists are involved with training in a variety of ways. Some I/O psychologists conduct research on general training best practices, informing the field through their books, presentations, and journal articles. Others work directly for organizations, such as large corporations or government agencies, designing and delivering training to employees. Consultants often work with a variety of organizations, and may assist Human Resources staff in providing training, departing after the training is complete. In the section that follows, we will take a closer look at how I/O psychologists approach training, applying research best practices. Needs Assessment Organizations invest much time and money on formal training programs. Training employees involves a variety of steps, and I/O psychologists use certain processes to ensure that training is effective and that it makes an impact. For example, prior to creating a training program, I/O psychologists conduct research through a needs assessment. This is a formal assessment that provides insight into the type and method of training that will most benefit the employee and organization. It also determines who needs to receive the training, as well as any limitations that may reduce the effectiveness of certain training methods. An I/O psychologist may use information gathered in a previous job analysis. They may also interview or survey employees, supervisors, and upper management, as well as observe employees at work. Performance appraisals and other existing data on employees may provide insight into the needs of employees (Spector, 2012). An I/O psychologist who is consulting for an organization may also attempt to gain insight into the level of support direct supervisors and upper management are willing to provide for employees who complete a training program. For example, if supervisors are willing to provide ongoing opportunities for employees to refine new skills, this will enhance the effectiveness of the training. On the other hand, suppose a training program is intended to foster creative problem-solving skills and the direct supervisor has an authoritative style and disregards the opinions of employees; this could inhibit the effectiveness of training. Finally, they may seek information regarding the immediate and future goals and/or mission of the organization to ensure that the training content is aligned with the values of the organization. They use these resources, as well as their own research, to create training programs specifically tailored to the employees (Spector, 2012). An I/O psychologist may also explore existing research and

PSY 4680, Industrial Organizational Psychology 3

best practices for training in the particular skills or content area. They would use the lessons learned in previous studies to develop a more valid training program. There are academic journals dedicated to publishing research specifically on training. Training Design Following the needs assessment, they set specific learning objectives and determine how to accomplish these and how to ensure that these needs are met. They may use existing frameworks, such as the Games (1985) framework for instructional design. They will collaborate with a variety of different stakeholders in order to design the training program. I/O psychologists will generally involve subject matter experts, such as employees and supervisors, asking for their input throughout the training design process. Existing employees can provide great insight into whether the training program will be perceived as interesting, engaging, and relevant to their peers. Involving employees in the process may also help to establish credibility for the training program, which may motivate participants to put forth the effort to complete the training program to the best of their ability. Some examples of training methods include audiovisual instruction, autoinstruction, conferences, lectures, modeling, on-the-job training, role- playing, and simulation. Audiovisual instruction involves presenting information to participants through a PowerPoint or other visual presentation, as well as discussing the material verbally. Organizations can use this approach to train a large group at one time. Autoinstruction is programmed instruction, in which participants can take the training at a time convenient to them, completing it at their own pace. An example of this would be an online training program. This allows the organization to provide instant feedback on the results. Conferences involve bringing participants together to learn through presentations and discussions of the material. Participants can engage in the material to a higher degree, involving them in the training. Lectures are economical and are effective when training involves simply presenting information. Modeling involves watching an expert complete a task or otherwise model behavior to be learned, and then the participants try the same behavior and receive feedback. It is a very effective method for training interpersonal skills. On-the-job training involves formal or informal instruction through normal job activities in which participants learn by doing the tasks and receive feedback. This results in a high level of transfer of training. Role-playing is another method involving participants acting out the desired behaviors or skill sets, particularly through interactions with each other. This approach allows participants to practice the skills. Finally, simulations involve creating a realistic setting in which participants practice the skills as if they were actually on the job. This approach also results in high transfer of training. After designing the training program, an I/O psychologist will conduct a validation study. Ideally, they will have the opportunity and resources to test the impact of the training program by administering it to one group of employees, and testing their performance before and after taking the training. When possible, they have a comparison group that does not receive the training, to which they can compare performance levels. This may continue through many cycles of revising and testing the training program to increase the effectiveness of the program (Spector, 2012).

PSY 4680, Industrial Organizational Psychology 4

Training Evaluation After developing and administering the training program, I/O psychologists evaluate the training program, again using a research-based approach. A popular approach to assessing training is to measure the reactions of the participants, the learning, performance or behavioral change, and the organizational-level outcomes (Lliger, Tannenbaum, Bennett, Traver, & Shotland, 1997). I/O psychologists use different methods, such as interviewing, surveying, performance appraisal, and observation to assess whether employees acquired the knowledge and/or skills, whether they performed better on the job immediately after and in the long-term, how they felt about the training, and other outcomes. For example, to determine whether sales force training is effective, outcomes such as sales volume, sales personnel performance, and similar outcomes would be assessed (Tan & Newman, 2012). In addition to measure these, I/O psychologists conduct research on how to best measure training effectiveness and how these different outcomes are related. For example, researchers discovered that the more useful employees perceive the training program, the more likely they will be to experience a transfer of training on the job (Lliger et al., 1997). Developmental Assignments While we have only explored formal training programs so far, much training and development actually occurs informally, on the job. I/O psychologists also conduct research on the impact of various on-the-job training activities. For example, an area that has received a lot of attention is developmental assignments. These are temporary assignments, roles, or activities that challenge the employee, often resulting in new knowledge and/or skills. Examples of developmental assignments include activities that involve hardships, working with new people, and even off-the-job activities (Lombardo & Eichinger, 1989). Employers can strategically assign employees to face challenges, such as working with others over whom they have no formal authority, inheriting problems, or working under external pressures (McCauley, Eastman, & Ohlott, 1995). These experiences can help employees to develop skills that may be impossible to gain in a four-hour lecture, or even a simulation. By understanding the different ways in which existing duties and assignments offer opportunities for employees to develop important skills and leadership capabilities, employers can place employees into these assignments in ways that will benefit both the organization and the employee.

References Alliger, G. M., Tannenbaum, S. I., Bennett Jr. W., Traver, H., & Shotland, A.

(1997). A meta-analysis of the relations among training criteria. Personnel Psychology, 50(2), 341-358.

Chiaburu, D. S., Oh, I., Berry, C. M., Li, N., & Gardner, R. G. (2011). The five-

factor model of personality traits and organizational citizenship behaviors: A meta-analysis. Journal Of Applied Psychology, 96(6), 1140-1166.

Einarsen, S., Aasland, M. S., & Skogstad, A. (2007). Destructive leadership

behaviour: A definition and conceptual model. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(3), 207-216.

Gagne, R. M., (1985). The conditions of learning and theory of instruction. New

York, NY: CBS College Publishing.

PSY 4680, Industrial Organizational Psychology 5

Lombardo, M. M., & Eichinger, R. W. (1989). Eighty-eight assignments for development in place. Center for Creative Leadership.

McCauley, C. D., Eastman, L. J., & Ohlott, P. J. (1995). Linking management

selection and development through stretch assignments. Human Resource Management, 34(1), 93-115.

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational behavior: Research and

practice (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Tan, K., & Newman, E. (2012). Sales force training evaluation. Journal Of

Business & Economics Research, 10(2), 105-109.

Suggested Reading Siadaty, M., Gasevic, D., Jovanovic, J., Pata, K., Milikic, N., Holocher-Ertl, T.,

Hatala, M. (2012). Self-regulated workplace learning: a pedagogical framework and semantic web-based environment. Educational Technology & Society, 15(4), 75+.

To access this article go to the Academic OneFile in the CSU Online Library and search for the authors.

Learning Activities (Non-Graded) Visit the American Society for Training & Development website and explore the articles and resources available there. http://www.astd.org/Communities-of-Practice/Workforce-Development Non-Graded Learning Activities are provided to aid students in their course of study. You do not have to submit them. If you have questions contact your instructor for further guidance and information.