Homework 3

Study Unit

Writing the Report By

Robert G. Turner Jr., Ph.D.

All terms mentioned in this text that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized. Use of a term in this text should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.

About the Author

Robert G. Turner Jr. holds a B.S. in business and an M.S. and a Ph.D. in sociology. He has more than 20 years of teaching experi- ence, mainly at the college level, and is currently serving as an adjunct professor at Virginia Tech, Blacksburg. Dr. Turner is primarily employed as a professional freelance writer. His literary credits include two stage plays, two novels, and two nonfiction works, along with an array of publications in academic and educational venues.

Copyright © 2003 by Penn Foster, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to Copyright Permissions, Penn Foster, 925 Oak Street, Scranton, Pennsylvania 18515.

Printed in the United States of America

08/22/14

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Information is at the heart of any human enterprise. While information may be conveyed in many ways, in the world of business, reports make up the bulk of what gets written and, presumably, read. Consider a typical business manufacturing operation. Managers have to solve problems.

Sometimes things go wrong—shipments don’t get out on time, and customer orders aren’t processed efficiently. Even when things are going right, people in an organization often need information. Market changes, altered production proce- dures, and changes in personnel may require a written report of some kind. In fact, simple day-to-day operations generate a need for progress reports.

Managers and other people in authority often require reports to track particular projects or to track routine progress. Clients often need information on how their money is being spent. Workers may need to share report information to coordinate their activities. In larger organizations, reports between departments are often needed to coordinate inter- departmental activities. Marketing people need to know what’s happening in the production division. People in production may need to coordinate with the shipping department, and so on.

In effect, reports can be written whenever information needs to be transmitted—for any reason and from anyone to any- one else inside or outside an organization.

Reports come in all sizes. Routine reports may involve a single-page form. Trouble-shooting or progress reports may be long and complex. Depending on their scope, size, and, especially, on their audience, reports may be formal or infor- mal. Interoffice memos, letters, or e-mails are often informal. Longer reports, such as a report or proposal involving a complex architectural or construction project, are usually formal and may involve multiple volumes of specifications, notes, explanations, and justifications.

In this study unit, you’ll explore the various kinds of informal and formal reports.

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When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to • Explain the purpose and importance of reports

• Describe the various kinds of informal reports

• Describe the nature of formal reports and identify their components

• Explain the elements of style suitable for effective report writing

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INFORMAL REPORTS 1

The Purpose of Reports 1 Types of Reports 2 Formats for Informal Reports 4 Types of Informal Reports 7

FORMAL REPORTS 23

Report Planning 23 Report Design 25 Part 1: Preliminary Information 25 Part 2: Body of the Report 35 Part 3: References and Appendices 40 Report Styling 40 Summary 46

SELF-CHECK ANSWERS 49

EXAMINATION 51

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INFORMAL REPORTS

The Purpose of Reports

In general, reports are written because people in authority need information. They may need information to evaluate a procedure or a current policy, to help formulate recommen- dations, or to track day-to-day activities in the organization (Figure 1).

Writing the Report

FIGURE 1—No matter what kind of business you work in, people in management posi- tions will need information from subordinates to help them make good decisions.

Writing the Report

Regardless of their size, form, or subject, all reports should convey information thoroughly, accurately, and objectively. To help you remember these objectives, think of the ancient Chinese expression tao, which is translated as “a fruitful and correct way or path.” When you’re charged with writing any kind of report, the principle of tao, the proper way, becomes your responsibility. Make sure your reports are

Thorough

Accurate

Objective

If you fail to follow the tao principle, what you provide won’t be a report, because it won’t fulfill the objectives of a report.

Types of Reports

There are two general types of reports, formal and informal. The differences between the two, however, aren’t always clear. In fact, there are variations of reports that fall somewhere in between the two. Nonetheless, the characteristics in Table 1 should give you a good idea of the main differences between the formal reports and informal reports. In this study unit, you’ll be examining both types of reports.

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How Important Is the Right Information? During the Civil War, Robert E. Lee’s army of Northern Virginia proceeded into Pennsylvania. General Stewart was in command of Lee’s fast-moving cavalry. Lee charged Stewart with the responsi- bility of being the “eyes” of the army. For a variety of reasons, Stewart was unable to provide Lee with the information he needed. As a result, Lee and his generals didn’t have an adequate picture of the location or the strength of Union forces. Many historians feel that Stewart’s failure to provide timely reports contributed significantly to the Confederate defeat at Gettysburg, which was a turning point of the American Civil War.

Writing the Report 3

Determining whether to use an informal report or a formal report is usually relatively easy. For example, suppose you want to make a suggestion to your boss about a new piece of equipment or a new procedure for your department. Such material would fit naturally into an informal report. On the other hand, suppose an employee is seriously injured while working with a machine in your department. You must pre- pare a report that will be read by your immediate supervisor and other executives in your company, by representatives of your insurance company, by the employee’s attorneys, and by people at the employee’s insurance company. In this report, you must include a description of the accident, why the employee was using the machine, what caused the acci- dent, information on the machine itself, and other related information. This type of situation calls for a formal report.

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Writing the Report

Sometimes, the choice between formal and informal isn’t completely clear. To help you decide on a format, consider your audience. If your audience consists of people with whom you’re familiar and who are familiar with the situation, then you can probably use an informal report. If you must submit a report to people who are unfamiliar with you and with the topic you’re writing about, then probably a formal report would be the better choice (Figure 2).

Formats for Informal Reports Informal reports usually take one of three basic forms:

1. Blank form

2. Interoffice memo

3. Letter

Blank Form

A blank report form is used when certain information must be submitted on a regular basis. For example, suppose a restaurant owner wants to keep track of certain information about the business he conducts. To obtain this information, he requires his waiters and waitresses to submit a report every day at the end of their shifts. Rather than have each employee write out a report, the owner has prepared a blank form that the employees can complete and submit (Figure 3).

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FIGURE 2—Don’t make the mistake of taking too casual an approach to an audience with which you’re unfamiliar.

Writing the Report 5

Blank report forms are the simplest of the informal reports. The writer must merely fill in the necessary blanks with the appropriate information. Such forms are generally provided by the organization and tailored to its unique informational needs. This type of standardized report form is meant to ensure that information is

• Never unintentionally omitted

• Easily located by those who have to read the form

• Clearly focused and brief

Downtown Diner Daily Business Report

Date ____________________

Employee name ____________________________________________

Hours worked ___________ to ___________

Insert appropriate number in the blanks provided below.

_______ Tables served

_______ People served

_______ Children served

_______ Specials ordered

_______ Number of people eating alone

_______ Dinners returned*

*Type of dinner

______________________________________________________________________________

Reason returned

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 3—This blank form could be used by a restaurant owner to track business information.

Writing the Report

Interoffice Memorandum Form

Interoffice memos are generally used to send information to people in the same department or to people in different departments within the same organization. They’re the least formal of the three types of informal reports and are often forwarded as e-mail communications.

Memos should be used for information that can be covered in one or two pages, or about three e-mail computer screens. Anything longer than two pages should be prepared in a more formal format. When memos are used to convey routine infor- mation, such as the revision of a pay schedule or a change in the procedures for reporting production, they should be direct and to the point.

A report in the form of an interoffice memo should supply readers with all of the facts they need to understand a body of data or a situation. In that context, a memo typically addresses only one main topic, such as the relevant results of a survey, simple announcements, or conclusions and rec- ommendations with respect to some kind of needed action. A writer may use headings within the body of a memo if they help to clarify the message. A writer may also insert lists if they’re the most efficient way to summarize information.

Letter Form

The classic informal report takes the form of a business letter. Letter reports are usually longer than memos—often exceeding two pages—and the letter format commands a different kind of attention than a memo. For example, a letter generally presents a somewhat more formal and courteous approach to the message being communicated. A report in the form of a letter may include more headings than a memo, simply because it may be longer. Headings break up informa- tion into logical categories and make it easier for the readers to digest the information. Like memos, reports in letter form may contain lists—if and when lists are the most efficient way to summarize information.

Whereas memos are generally sent to individuals within an organization, letter reports may be intended for receivers either inside or outside an organization. They may be used

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Since the advent of the personal com- puter and the increased use of e- mail, interoffice memos have become quite infor- mal.

Writing the Report 7

within an organization if the subject seems too important for a memo or if the subject demands the more commanding look of a well-prepared letter. For example, a letter that cri- tiques an employee’s performance or a long report on the prospective budget for the coming fiscal year may be best presented in letter format.

When a letter is directed to someone outside an organization, the writer should give a bit more attention to the mechanics involved. As in any kind of business letter, the writer should aim for appropriate formality, a courteous style, a neat appearance, and a positive tone.

Types of Informal Reports

Reports can be created for almost any occasion on any sub- ject imaginable. The following types of reports are the ones you’re most likely to receive—or have to write:

• Field trip reports

• Progress and status reports

• Periodic reports

• Feasibility reports

• Troubleshooting reports

Field Trip Reports

Field trip reports are frequently used in business and industry to record the results of on-site inspections. Like most other types of reports, their scope and significance deter- mine whether they take the form of a formal or an informal report. Field trip reports can focus on one or two

operational problems or on a wide range of operational con- cerns. They may be critical, or they may be positive.

Writing the Report

Here are the types of topics that would be appropriate for a field trip report:

• Safety conditions at a plant

• Damage to shipments of storage sheds

• Employee complaints about management

• The overall management picture, including procedures, policy adherence, and the morale of managers

• Operation of a new piece of equipment

• Methods to improve shipping time

Field reports can cover general topics like those just men- tioned, or they may deal with a specific situation in your organization. No matter what the topic, a field report usually includes five kinds of information, generally in the order given below:

1. Purpose of your inspection or inquiry

2. Identity of the site or facility

3. Description of your investigation

4. Your results, including what you observed and under what conditions

5. Your conclusions and recommendations

Purpose of the inspection or inquiry. To familiarize your readers with the situation, begin any field trip report with a brief description of the purpose of the investigation. Doing so helps to focus your report for you and for your readers. The field trip report in memo form (Figure 4) states the pur- pose in one concise statement: “To investigate the causes of employee problems and reduced work output in a shop of the Jemco Company.”

Identity of the site or facility. Clearly identifying the site of an investigation is especially important when you’ve been sent to check out several different sites. However, even if you’re examining only one site for a single purpose, you should still identify the site under consideration. Identifying the site is part of making sure your report is thorough—the first part of the tao principle. Including a description will also help in the future when you look back on the report. You’ll know exactly which site you were evaluating.

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Writing the Report 9

Description of your investigation. The description of your investigation is crucial. It lets your reader know how you collected your data and under what conditions. For example, if you gathered your information through inter- views, you should explain what questions were asked, of whom they were asked, why they were asked, when they were asked, and even, at times, where they were asked. For example, interviews conducted during short work breaks may not be as fruitful as those conducted during the lunch break or in a meeting with several interviewees.

Remember that a field report is intended to provide timely and useful information to the reader. If your description of the investigation is inadequate, you’re forcing the reader to see the situation either dimly or inaccurately. Inaccurate understanding on the part of your readers may lead to poor management decisions and inappropriate outcomes.

The description of your investigation doesn’t have to be long, but it should definitely include the who, what, when, where, and why—as well as the time it took to conduct your investi- gation. Overall, your description should follow the second and third parts of the tao principle—that is, it should be accurate and objective.

Your results. The results of your investigation should follow naturally after the description of how you conducted your study. In the results section, record the data you collected, such as the summary of answers to a questionnaire, condi- tions you observed, negative attitudes revealed through interviews, numbers of units produced per unit time, and so on. List your results in a manner similar to that in Figure 4. Use appropriate facts and figures to address each topic or problem covered in the report. Your results will be the basis of any conclusions or recommendations drawn from your investigation; therefore, they should obviously be thorough, accurate, and objective.

Conclusions and recommendations. The bottom line of your report is revealed in your conclusions and recommen- dations. Although you should base your conclusions on the facts you’ve gathered, you may also indicate your interpreta- tion of the data, including any feelings or hunches you may have about it. In a classic film, Fail-Safe, the president of the United States is on the hot line with the Soviet premier.

Writing the Report

The president directs his translator to interpret not only the premier’s words but also his sense of the feelings or sugges- tions that he detects “between the lines.” In other words, a good report should include your best judgment and your insight into the problems you’ve investigated.

Finally, your conclusions should lead to your recommenda- tions for some action or actions to address the problem. In Figure 4, the conclusions section is a brief paragraph stating that Shop No. 6 is too small to handle the number of employ- ees who must work there. A list of specific recommendations follows the conclusions.

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DATE: August 23, 2002

TO: Mr. Frank Reese

FROM: George Frankl

SUBJECT: Reduced Work Output

Purpose

To investigate the causes of employee problems and reduced work output in a shop of the Jemco

Company.

Identity of Facility

Shop # 6, Jemco Company

Description of Investigation

On visiting the site over a period of 12 workdays, I examined the tools, equipment, general facili-

ties, and production records. I spent one full week observing all shop operations, and I interviewed

all employees and their supervisor. To conduct the interviews, I scheduled employees in groups of

three throughout the workday. We used a small conference room, conveniently located for all

employees. My main purpose in conducting the interviews was to gain insight into the problems

from the employees’ point of view. A list of the questions asked is attached to this report.

Results

My investigation identified the following problems:

1. The shop employs 82 employees when it has room for only 52.

2. Equipment blocks doors, creating a fire hazard.

3. Work quality is often poor because equipment has to be shared by too many workers.

4. Because equipment is distributed on a first-come, first-served basis, it’s often hoarded by

a few workers.

FIGURE 4—Sample Field Trip Report in Memo Format

Writing the Report 11

FIGURE 4—Continued

Reese—2

5. The use of only one supervisor in a shop of such diversified operations as Shop # 6 has

resulted in inefficient supervision.

6. Inefficient supervision has resulted in poor work habits among employees.

Conclusions

In brief, Shop # 6 of the Jemco Company is large enough for only 52 people. It is too small to

accommodate the 82 employees who must work there. Tempers are short, morale is low, and

working conditions are generally poor. The result is substandard work. While we once led this

industry in the area around Shop # 6, we now trail our two local competitors both in sales and

in work submitted to us for repair.

Recommendations

1. Add another time shift to the one now in effect in Shop # 6.

2. Require the shop supervisor to conduct weekly safety checks so that fire exits are clear and

fire extinguishers are fully charged.

3. Build a tool crib at each end of the room, in addition to the existing crib along the left wall.

Maintain a complete set of tools in each crib under the supervision of one person whose sole

responsibility is to dispense tools. Develop a system to record the tools borrowed. Include the

name of the borrower, the date the tool is borrowed, and the date it’s returned.

4. Hold each worker responsible to return tools immediately after he or she is finished with

them. Any worker who has not returned tools after a reasonable amount of time should be

charged for them. The person in charge of the tool crib will determine the amount of time

each worker is allowed to use tools.

5. Hire two assistant supervisors. These two individuals, plus the one supervisor in charge,

should divide their time between the present shift and the new shift recommended above.

At least one supervisor or assistant supervisor should be on duty at all times.

6. Direct the supervisor on duty to focus on production efficiency and quality.

7. Reassess the situation in two years. If output hasn’t increased and if employee problems

haven’t decreased, consider expanding the shop area.

Writing the Report

Progress Reports

Progress reports generally give accounts of work that’s currently being worked on, but isn’t yet com- pleted. These reports are typically intended for managers who are responsible for tracking a project, so they can plan to provide or set aside necessary resources such as

time, people, space, and equipment. Progress reports are also intended to be a quick way to catch problems early. Problems that go unresolved may produce a ripple effect that can influ- ence costs, time schedules, personnel needs, and other kinds of operational factors.

If you must write a progress report on a project for which you’re responsible, that report can serve two purposes. First, it informs your readers of your progress so they can plan what they must do to complete it (Figure 5). Second, your report can be a self-check on how much remains to be done, how much time will be involved in reaching a completion date, and just what resources are needed to get the job done.

In effect, a progress report can benefit both the person who prepares it and the person who reads it.

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When I asked for a progress report, George, that’s not exactly what I had in mind.

FIGURE 5—If you’re asked to write a progress report, make sure to include informa- tion that will be helpful to your reader.

Writing the Report 13

The basic concern of most progress reports is time. Project managers want to know how much has been done, how much is currently being accomplished, and how much remains to be done. A good progress report considers the past, the present, and the future and should include the following items:

• Summary/overview of the whole project

• Summary of work already completed

• Description of work currently under way

• Estimate of the work remaining

• Final recommendations

Status Reports

Status reports are very similar to progress reports. In some organiza- tions, they may even mean the same thing. Think about it for a minute. When you report on the status of a project, you’re usually accounting for the progress of that project.

The main difference between a status report and a progress report lies mainly in their emphasis. A progress report relates the past, present, and future of a project; a status report focuses more on the present condition of a project. A progress report is about change over a given time; a status report is about current conditions.

To make sure you place the emphasis on the correct factor, you must organize your material properly. For example, in a progress report, you should distribute information evenly over these topics: work completed, work in progress, and work yet to be completed. In a status report, on the other hand, you should focus on current conditions, providing a wealth of specific detail. You might then add observations about work completed and work remaining.

When developing a sta- tus report, place the focus of your discus- sion on current conditions.

Writing the Report

Here’s an effective approach to organizing a status report:

• Summary overview of the entire project

• Detailed discussion of current conditions related to the project

• Summary discussion of the work already completed and the work remaining

• Final recommendations

Periodic Reports

Periodic reports, as their name sug- gests, are meant to help management keep track of operations on a regular basis. The frequency with which the reports are submitted varies from one day to one year. For example, depart- ment heads may have to submit annual reports to their bosses, detail-

ing the production for the year, including items like quantities produced, machine downtime, quality assurance checks, and so on. On the other hand, these same depart- ment heads may have to submit daily reports of how much was produced in the department or weekly reports on sick time and vacation time.

Whether a periodic report is to be filed daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, or annually, it’s typically prepared by a project manager or supervisor and submitted to someone in upper- level management. For routine, short-interval reports, some kind of blank form may be standard. When the reports are filed less frequently or when they involve complex operations, they may take the form of status or progress reports in either memo or letter form.

While periodic reports may take any of the forms you’ve considered to this point, they most often deal with routine matters and tend to take on a uniform style. For example, in most organizations, requisition, travel, and expense reports are typically submitted on a standardized form. Standardization is a common characteristic of efforts to promote efficiency.

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When preparing a peri- odic report—or any other kind of report— remember the tao principle. The purpose of any report is to pro- vide thorough, accurate, and objective information.

Writing the Report 15

Suppose you’re a new employee at Briscett, Inc. You’ve been told that you must submit a daily report. At the end of the first day, you get a blank form and you talk to a coworker about what the standard is for the report and how you should prepare it.

If the report form is standardized and its format doesn’t quite suit what you have to say, show some initiative. Don’t let the layout of the form dictate what you write. When you must explain or clarify special circumstances, modify the form or, if necessary, attach an explanatory note to it.

Feasibility Reports

Managers regularly ask themselves questions in an attempt to improve some aspect of their business. Here are some of the types of questions managers may ask:

• Should the space allotted to quality control be expanded?

• Will productivity be enhanced if employees are permitted to set up flextime schedules?

• Will it be cost effective to network the computer work stations used by people who handle order processing?

• Should we add a new item to our current product line?

In the world of business, such questions do arise. When they do, someone may be asked to write a feasibility report. The purpose of such a report is to show whether it’s realistic to make a proposed change in the company.

Let’s say you’re the one who has been asked to write a report about the feasibility of allowing employees to establish flex- time work schedules. Consider these logical steps you must take:

1. Research the problem to understand what may be involved. Will productivity be enhanced or hampered? How can standard shift arrangements be reordered to allow some people to work on flextime?

Writing the Report

2. Evaluate the results of your investigation and consider alternatives. This step may involve making inquiries at firms that use flextime systems. It may involve some Internet research, and certainly, it will involve talking to employees about what kinds of work schedules will meet their needs.

3. Grit your teeth, take some deep breaths, and write a report that offers recommendations based on your decisions.

Most feasibility reports are informal documents written in memo or letter form. Since a feasibility report can deal with a very wide range of issues, however, it may end up being long or short, simple or complex. No matter what the length or the complexity of the subject, most feasibility reports have four basic components:

• Introduction

• Proposed action or actions

• Conclusion

• Final recommendations

Introduction. The introduction to a feasibility report should include

• Background and purposes of the report

• Statement of the problem

• Extent of your investigation into the problem

• Criteria applied in the investigation, which may include such things as cost, efficiency, or productivity

Proposed action or actions. After the introduction, you should present detailed information about the problem(s) and the proposed action(s). This part of the report may contain a few paragraphs or many pages, depending on the nature and scope of the problem or problems and the scope of your investigation.

In principle, this section of the feasibility report should consider all of the issues or variables that may bear on the problem at hand. In reality, considering all possible

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Writing the Report 17

alternatives may not be feasible because you may not have access to all relevant information. Therefore, the practical goal is to gather all of the data you can and consider all of the options implied by that data. In other words, the report should be thorough, accurate, and objective, within the limits of the time and resources that surround any real-life situation.

For each problem that you’re considering in a feasibility report, address it in terms of the criteria that seem most relevant. These typically include such things as

• Cost

• Ease of implementation

• Time constraints on implementation

• Efficiency

Conclusion. The conclusion is usually not a very lengthy section of a feasibility report. It should include a summary and an evaluation of each proposed action covered in the preceding section.

Final recommendations. Conclude your report in one or two paragraphs that summarize your conclusions and recom- mendations. In this section, you should justify your best judgment and possibly make some concluding comments on potential alternatives. If you have expertise in the subject matter you’re reporting on, offer your best judgment in that light. Above all, however, be certain that your conclusions and recommendations follow logically from the facts and observations presented in the body of your report. In parti- cular, your recommendations should clearly be based on the criteria you’ve established for evaluating any kind of action.

Troubleshooting Reports

Trouble happens. Things go wrong even in the most efficient and pro- ductive organizations. When things go wrong, you can either ignore the trouble or take action. If you decide to take action, you should take the following steps:

The heart of a fea- sibility report is its recommendations section.

Writing the Report

1. Investigate the problem.

2. Attempt to discover its causes.

3. Determine how the problem can be fixed.

4. Prepare some kind of plan for correcting the problem.

5. Implement the plan.

These steps sound very logical and simple. In the real world, however, one problem often leads to the discovery of another problem or even to the realization that the problem can’t be fixed at all. Regardless, people in commercial or service enterprises often have to attempt to solve problems. In doing so, they may have to write troubleshooting reports to the people they work for.

Since trouble happens, troubleshooting reports are one of the most crucial of the reports considered in this study unit. A troubleshooting report may be informal or formal. It may be as short as a quick e-mail or as long as a detailed letter—full of facts, figures, tables, and yards and yards of discussion.

Regardless, an effective troubleshooting report should begin with an explanation of the purpose and scope of the report and the problem or problems it addresses. Further, each component of such a report should be clear and well defined. The components you can expect to cover when writing a troubleshooting report can be summarized as follows:

• Introduction

• Body

• Conclusion

• Final recommendations

Introduction. In the introduction, you should explain the purpose of the report, the scope of the problem, and the resources available to address the problem. While this section may amount to only a paragraph or two, it should properly orient the reader to the nature of the problem. To do this, you may have to provide some information about the history or background of the problem. Resources you may explore to address the problem might include technical manuals or diagrams, someone who has expertise in the problem at hand, or in the case of personnel issues, a psychologist who is available as a human resources consultant.

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Writing the Report 19

Body. The body of the report should contain all of the relevant facts and figures derived from an investigation of the problem, along with the relevant locations, personnel involved, analyses, and proposed solutions. In this section, include helpful head- ings such as “Problem Analysis,” “Similar Problems at the Charleston Facility,” and “Alternative Solutions.” Under each heading, include only information that pertains specifically to that heading. Avoid digressions and other kinds of verbal wandering. Stay on the subject, be specific with the facts, and use simple, concise language. The body of the report must provide a thoughtful, accurate, and objective analysis, including specific ideas about how the problem may be addressed and corrected.

Conclusion. The conclusion should summarize the problem and specify some preferred solution. If you divide the body of the report into sections under distinct headings, then your summary should provide a summary of each of them. In the conclusion, the focus should be on how the problem can be corrected.

Final recommendations. Your final recommendations should be concise, to the point, and above all, useful. When possible, attempt to show that the proposed solution should prevent similar problems from arising in the future.

This concludes your study of informal reports. In the next section, you’ll begin to examine formal reports. Before you go on to that material, please complete Self-Check 1.

Writing the Report20

Self-Check 1 At the end of each section of Writing the Report, you’ll be asked to pause and check your understanding of what you have just read by completing a “Self-Check” exercise. Answering these questions will help you review what you’ve studied so far. Please complete Self- Check 1 now.

1. Briefly explain the tao principle.

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

2. Carefully read the following three situations. Then determine what type of report would best suit the facts provided. The types of report are listed here for your convenience.

Field trip report Periodic report

Progress report Feasibility report

Status report Troubleshooting report

Situation A

A tornado damages the Emerson Fabrication Plant in Charlotte, North Carolina, causing about $28,000 in damage to the roof and the north wall. Three machine lathes and a stor- age area in the shipping department were affected by water damage.

The findings are as follows:

• One machine lathe is beyond repair.

• Two machine lathes will require repairs to their transmissions.

• Seventeen packed shipping cartons suffered water damage, requiring the repackaging of approximately 1,400 dozen machined toggle bolts.

Report type ______________________________

(Continued)

Writing the Report 21

Self-Check 1 Situation B

In the midst of a rash of customer complaints and high absenteeism among sales personnel, gross sales at the Henderson Friendly Store (No. 24) have dropped dramatically over the cur- rent quarter, showing a 37 percent decline over the same quarter in 2000.

Here are the findings for this situation. Customers have been complaining that sales personnel are discourteous and that they have difficulty locating salespeople on the floor when they need information.

Sales employee absenteeism has been linked to two factors: (1) a recent decision to raise the biweekly paycheck deduction for medical insurance from $37.00 to $52.00 and (2) the recent layoff of 10 percent of the sales personnel.

Both customer complaints and sales declines are related in part to inadequate inventory restocking and in part to low employee morale.

Report type ______________________________

Situation C

WXJT Broadcast Systems wants to upgrade its signal from 100 to 1,000 watts.

The findings for this situation are as follows. We have completed a study assessing the needs of station WXJT and have found that replacing the old R16 tube and cavity with an R28 tube and cavity would increase wattage by a factor of 10, improve broadcast quality, and expand the current 15-mile radius to a 50-mile radius.

Currently, we’re filling out the necessary FCC forms, applying for the license, and notifying them of the 48-hour shutdown dates.

On June 22 and 23, we’ll shut down the station, tear out the old R16 tube and cavity, and install the new R28 tube and cavity.

Report type ______________________________

(Continued)

Writing the Report22

Self-Check 1 3. List the four criteria used to consider each problem in a feasibility report.

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

4. What is the difference between a status report and a progress report?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

Check your answers with those on page 49.

Writing the Report 23

FORMAL REPORTS

You probably won’t have to write a formal report early in your professional or business career. However, you may have to read, study, or evaluate reports written by others. Therefore, you should be aware of the nature of formal reports, their components, and how they’re prepared.

Formal reports may be developed for distribution within a company, but they’re more often used to address an audi- ence outside the organization. A company’s annual report, for example, is a formal report directed to the company’s stockholders as well as to key personnel within the company.

Formal reports don’t convey a specific kind of information. For example, a progress report, a feasibility report, or a trou- bleshooting report may be presented as formal reports. In any case, formal reports are generally prepared because the topic is important or complex or because the topic demands a lengthy treatment.

The attributes of a formal report are

• Its relative size. A formal report is longer than an infor- mal report.

• Its scope. A formal report has a broader scope than an informal report.

• Its importance to those concerned with it. A formal report deals with a subject of importance.

• A specified format. The format for a formal report is predetermined.

• A formal tone. The language used in a formal report should be more formal than that of an informal report.

Report Planning

Because formal reports are far more complex than informal ones, they require more preparation, more work, and a lot more writing. In planning a formal report, you should begin by asking yourself some important questions:

Writing the Report

• Who is my audience?

• What information do I have to offer that’s relevant to them?

• What is my purpose in writing the report?

• How should I organize the work?

All of these questions are interrelated. If your audience consists of your company’s stockholders, then the informa- tion that’s relevant to them includes facts and figures about the company’s performance, market prospects in the future, and of course, profitability. Investors need to know how much they can expect as a return on their investment, now and in the future. Therefore, in writing an annual report for stockholders, you would present your company in a positive light, showing concern for the interests of investors. In addi- tion, you should include topics and headings that address the likely concerns of your investors.

On the other hand, if your audience consists of customers, your tone will probably be aimed at maintaining congenial relations. The purpose of your report will very likely be to get and keep customers. A key element of any good formal report is its attention to its intended audience (Figure 6).

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FIGURE 6—Who is the audience for your report? Is it a group of businesspersons? Professionals? Blue col- lar workers? Students? Make sure you always keep them in mind as you prepare any report.

Writing the Report 25

Report Design

Most formal reports take a position and then document that position with various kinds of supporting evidence, presented in a logical and readable manner. In drafting a formal report, you should divide your effort into three sections:

• Part 1 contains preliminary information that allows your readers to understand, locate, and review the informa- tion presented in the body of the report.

• Part 2 represents the body of the report. It includes your investigation of the subject and is supported by your final conclusions and recommendations.

• Part 3 contains the end matter of your report. It’s a supplement to the first two sections and provides your audience with information they may find useful in digesting and interpreting what has come before.

The next three sections of this study unit cover these three parts in more detail.

Part 1: Preliminary Information

The preliminary section of a formal report presents the following elements in the order shown:

1. Title page

2. Cover memorandum or letter of transmittal

3. Table of contents

4. List of illustrations

5. Summary or abstract

Title Page

The title page should be the first page of your report. All formal reports have a title page that supplies the following information:

• A title that clearly identifies the subject of the report

• The name of the person or organization to whom the report is being submitted

The sample parts of the formal report illus- trated on the following pages relate to the same scenario: Geoffrey W. Schnyder is president of Mainline Hardware Inc., a chain of large hardware stores. He has asked Tamara K. Lyons, direc- tor of marketing, to examine the possibility of locating a new store in Pennsylvania. The locations he has in mind are two adjacent towns, Pleasant Mill and Orchard Mountain. He wants to know if a store in either of these towns is feasible and, if so, which one would be the better location.

Writing the Report

• The name of the person or organization submitting the report

• The date of submission

The title of your report should be descriptive. That is, it should provide the reader with an immediate and concrete understanding of the subject.

Arrange the information on the title page so that it’s evenly distributed on the page and formatted to be both pleasing to the eye and commanding of the reader’s attention. The for- mat of the print should encourage the reader’s eye to fall a little bit above the center of the page (Figure 7).

The formality of the title page should convey the seriousness and professionalism of the organization. Indeed, in any for- mal report, the title page is a kind of flag that should both command attention and reflect positively on the presenter. A carelessly constructed title page may well be interpreted as carelessness and indifference that’s associated with both the report and the organization it represents.

Cover Memorandum or Letter of Transmittal

The next page of a formal report should be a memo or letter written to offer a concise explanation of why you’ve written the report and why it deserves to be read. You should use a cover memorandum if your report is intended for distribution within your organization and a letter of transmittal if the report is meant for an audience outside the organization’s environment. A letter of transmittal is simply a formal busi- ness letter, seldom more than one page long.

Both a memo and a letter should begin by stating the nature of the problem in the first paragraph. The next paragraph or paragraphs should offer a general sense of how you’ve addressed the problem. When using the letter format, close with a formal, respectful closing.

Figure 8 presents a sample cover memorandum for the report on the feasibility of opening a new Mainline Hardware Store.

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Writing the Report 27

Feasibility of Opening a Mainline Hardware Store in Pleasant Mill, Pennsylvania,

or Orchard Mountain, Pennsylvania

Prepared for: Geoffrey W. Schnyder President Mainline Hardware Inc.

Prepared by: Tamara K. Lyons Director of Marketing Mainline Hardware Inc.

Date: February 3, 2003

MAINLINE HARDWARE

FIGURE 7—Sample Title Page for a Formal Report

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MEMORANDUM

DATE: February 3, 2003

TO: Geoffrey W. Schnyder

FROM: Tamara K. Lyons

RE: Report on Feasibility of Opening a Mainline Hardware Store

in Pleasant Mill, Pennsylvania, or Orchard Mountain, Pennsylvania

As requested, I have studied the feasibility of introducing a Mainline Hardware Store in either

Pleasant Mill, Pennsylvania, or Orchard Mountain, Pennsylvania. This report contains the informa-

tion I gathered, along with my conclusions and recommendations.

To determine the feasibility of opening such a store, I conducted a survey of 1,000 residents of

Pleasant Mill and an additional 1,000 in Orchard Mountain. Also, I studied the demographics of

the two areas and examined the locations and sizes of the nearest existing hardware stores and

other businesses. In this report, I’ve used the information from the survey and from my own

research to arrive at my recommendation.

This has been an exciting project for me to work on, and I look forward to talking to you about

my conclusions.

MAINLINE HARDWARE

FIGURE 8—Sample Cover Memorandum

Writing the Report 29

Table of Contents

The table of contents for a formal report should be organized in the same way as the table of contents for a book. In fact, you can use published books as a guide in preparing your own table of contents for a formal report.

The table of contents should list all of the headings in your report exactly as they appear in the body of the document. Figure 9 illustrates a sample table of contents for the Mainline Hardware report. Note that the page numbers are opposite the headings at the extreme right. The page num- bers represent the first page on which the heading appears.

Your table of contents should clearly itemize your major headings, subtopics, and details of those subtopics. In other words, your table of contents should look very much like your outline. Normally, the major section headings are printed in all capital letters at the extreme left of the page. The subtopics and details of those subtopics should be in capitals and lowercase letters.

Give careful attention to the preparation of the table of con- tents. It’s an important part of any report, because it allows readers to

• Get an overview of the material

• Locate topics within the report

• Grasp the report’s organization

List of Illustrations

Immediately after the table of contents, you should include a separate page that lists all of the figures, tables, charts, graphs, and other graphic elements. List the tables sepa- rately from the other illustrations. For each item, include the number and title of the illustration, along with the page on which the graphic falls. If you have only a few illustrations— say three to five—you may list them on the same page as the table of contents.

Figure 10 presents a sample page containing a list of illustra- tions for the Mainline Hardware report.

In the table of contents, include all of the head- ings that appear in your report, along with their corresponding page numbers.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1

SUMMARY 2

INTRODUCTION 3 Description of Purpose 3 Outline of Investigation 3

PLEASANT MILL, PENNSYLVANIA 5 Location 5 General Description of Area 7 Access Routes 8 Population and Demographics 9 Tax Structure 10

ORCHARD MOUNTAIN, PENNSYLVANIA 11 Location 11 General Description of Area 13 Access Routes 14 Population and Demographics 15 Tax Structure 16

SURVEY 17 Description of Survey 17 Method of Choosing Sample Population to Survey 19 Survey Results 20 Interpretation of Survey Results 24

COMPETITION 25 Pleasant Mill 25 Orchard Mountain 29

OTHER MAJOR INDUSTRIES AND BUSINESSES 31 Pleasant Mill 31 Orchard Mountain 33

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 35

FIGURE 9—Partial Table of Contents for Mainline Hardware Stores Report

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

TABLES

1. Occupations of Pleasant Mill Residents 9

2. Pleasant Mill Income Levels 10

3. Occupations of Orchard Mountain Residents 15

4. Orchard Mountain Income Levels 16

5. Tabulation of Survey Results 23

FIGURES

1. Map of Pleasant Mill 6

2. Map of Orchard Mountain 12

3. Sample Survey 18

4. Chart of Market Share of Hardware Business (Pleasant Mill) 28

5. Chart of Market Share of Hardware Business (Orchard Mountain) 30

FIGURE 10—Sample List of Illustrations for Mainline Hardware Store Report

Writing the Report

Summary or Abstract

In a formal report, the final element of Part 1 is a summary or abstract. This element is probably the second most impor- tant component of a formal report, the most important being the final conclusions and recommendations. Here’s why.

Suppose some of your readers want to get the gist of a long and complex report without actually reading the report. In such cases, they’ll read the summary or abstract and then turn to the conclusions and recommendations section to see where the report is headed. If some of your readers are going to read only the summary or abstract and the conclusions and recommendations sections, then these two sections should demand your careful attention.

The purposes of a summary or abstract are twofold:

1. To provide readers with a quick overview of the major points of a report

2. To allow readers to understand what a report is about without having to read the entire document

In a busy world, most people are pressed for time. Large, complex documents seldom get read from front to back. In fact, people in authority seldom have time to read all of the documents they receive. Often subordinates are given the responsibility of digesting and briefing their superiors on reports.

On the other hand, just because some people don’t have the time or the will to read a report from start to finish, that doesn’t mean that no one is going to read it. Carefully pre- pare your reports as if they’ll be read by everyone who receives them.

Summaries and abstracts should be written and organized so they permit readers to make decisions without having to read all of the copy and study all of the tables, facts, and figures. On the other hand, when your formal report is read carefully and in detail, the abstract or summary permits that reader to review the report quickly before making decisions.

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Writing the Report 33

With all of this in mind, remember that summaries or abstracts must be brief but thorough. Although they should contain no details, they should address the major points of the report, which are

• The problem

• The investigative procedure

• The conclusions and recommendations

Because your abstract or summary should give the reader a concise and accurate overview of the entire report, it should be the last thing you write. Write the body of the report; then write your summary or abstract. In that way, you can refer to all of the major headings in the report to make sure you’ve included their basic content in the summary or abstract.

What’s the difference between a summary and an abstract? There’s no general agreement about the meanings of the words summary and abstract, but there’s general agreement on two points. First, an abstract is usually briefer than a summary because it merely lists major points without defin- ing their relationships. Second, a summary is more complete than an abstract because it outlines relationships between significant points. An abstract is like an outline—a kind of skeleton or framework. On the other hand, a summary is more like a highly condensed essay.

Figure 11 presents a summary and an abstract for you to compare. The first difference you’ll probably notice is the length. The summary explains in a bit more detail what the abstract only outlines. Nevertheless, both samples accom- plish these goals:

• They give the reader a basic understanding of the report that follows.

• They address the report’s problem: to determine the feasibility of opening a new Mainline Hardware Store.

• They suggest the methods through which the problem was researched: personal research, survey, and the study of the competition and other businesses.

• They both convey the report’s solution to the problem: to build a new store in Pleasant Mill.

The writing process can be quite demanding and complex, but it always involves three basic steps: prewriting, writing, and revising. You plan, research, and organize; you write a first draft; then you revise and revise and revise. Mario Puzo, author of The Godfather, put it this way: “Writing is rewrit- ing.” Most writers agree that the greatest pro- portion of your writing time will be spent on the revision stage.

Writing the Report

Whether you choose to write a summary or an abstract, make it brief. If it contains too much detail, it won’t accom- plish its objectives. At the same time, make sure it addresses all of the major points included in the actual report.

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SUMMARY The purpose of this report is to outline the results of my study to determine the feasibility of opening a new Mainline Hardware Store in either Pleasant Mill, Pennsylvania, or Orchard Mountain, Pennsylvania.

In conducting my study, I first evaluated both areas based on such factors as location, access roads, and demographics. Next, I conducted a survey of 1,000 persons in each town. The sur- vey concentrated on the current hardware-buying habits of the population and their future needs. Finally, I studied the competition for the hardware business in both towns and other major industries and businesses.

The results of my survey and my initial examination of both areas indicate that either town would be a suitable location for one of our hardware stores. However, after examining the competition and the tax structure in both areas, I have concluded that the Pleasant Mill area would be a wiser choice.

ABSTRACT To determine the feasibility of opening a Mainline Hardware Store in either Pleasant Mill, Pennsylvania, or Orchard Mountain, Pennsylvania, I studied both areas, conducted a survey in both towns, and examined the competition and other businesses and industries in these areas. Based on the results of my study, I have concluded that the Pleasant Mill area would be a wiser choice.

FIGURE 11—The summary and abstract in this illustration were written for the same report. Comparing the two should give you an idea of the differences and similarities between them.

Writing the Report 35

Part 2: Body of the Report

Part 2 of a formal report is really the report itself. It should include all of the information readers need to understand and to evaluate the way you’ve investigated the problem, along with a proposed solution to the problem.

Specifically, in the body, you should include the data you’ve gathered, the findings generated by that data, and the way in which the results of the investigation bear on the problem you’re addressing. Most importantly, you must include your conclusions and your recommendations—the cornerstones of any report.

Introduction

In the introduction, put all of the preliminary data a reader needs to understand about the topic of the report. Such information includes any necessary background and history related to the problem, a brief statement of the report’s pur- pose and objectives, and if appropriate, a concise annotation of references based on a literature search. Possible subhead- ings for the introductory material are Problem, Purpose, and Objectives.

Body of the Report

The body of your formal report should contain the backbone and substance of what you have to say. It tells the reader exactly what investigating, analyzing, and observing you’ve accomplished. It concisely outlines the methods used to conduct the investigation, it presents the data that have been collected, and it lays out an analysis.

The body of the report should be as long and as complex as necessary for it to follow the tao principle—that is, it should be thorough, accurate, and objective. Therefore, when you’re interpreting your data, you should be clear and logical, and you must fully document what you say.

For example, if you propose a change in the pay scale for line workers, you should be able to support that suggestion with comparative pay scales in similar organizations, and

Don’t leave anything hanging in the body of your report. Your reader should be able to understand what you’ve done and how you went about it.

Writing the Report

you should justify your proposal in terms of cost versus productivity. Your readers must be able to grasp the validity of your assertions.

In the report for Mainline Hardware, Ms. Lyons is recom- mending that Pleasant Mill serve as the location for a new store. In her report, she must first supply data to show that Pleasant Mill is an appropriate location for one of their stores and then provide proof that it’s a better location than Orchard Mountain.

Regardless of the method of organization you use, your report should be easy to understand. Here are a few sugges- tions to help you make your material understandable for your readers:

• Use vivid descriptive headings to engage the reader and make effective transitions between topics.

• Present technical information in a manner that’s “user friendly,” especially if your readers may not have a tech- nical background.

• Present topics in a logical order. For example, suppose you’re presenting information on how to display mer- chandise in a store. You should probably begin with descriptions of various display methods before you begin to discuss your research into consumer responses or sales figures related to display approaches.

Information Sources

Within the body of any formal report, you must support your findings. Doing so helps to verify and validate any conclu- sions you draw and any recommendations you make. The following list includes some of the sources you may use in your report.

• Tests or experiments. You can conduct tests to work out many kinds of problems. The testing of new products might involve using a small group of potential consumers to evaluate a product. Lab tests of different kinds of drive motors may help a report writer recommend the best one for the robotics division of the company.

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The results of tests and experiments are more convincing when they involve first-hand observation by the per- son or persons preparing the report.

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• Published material. Information from published material in libraries, in company files, or on the Internet can be the starting point for supporting information for many reports.

• Personal experience. If you work directly with the infor- mation you’re reporting on or if you have prior experience in solving problems like the one being addressed, then you’re the ideal resource. But you must document your experience.

• On-the-job observations. Personal observation of a pro- duction process or any personal experience that gives you an edge in dealing with a problem may be crucial sources of information for an effective report.

Conclusions and Recommendations

At the end of Part 2, present your conclusions and recom- mendations. Conclusions are your final observations. They record your convictions and feelings about the subject that you investigated. They represent your reactions, thoroughly reasoned and thought out, to the data you compiled and recorded. Recommendations, on the other hand, are proposed actions—that is, what you think should be done, based on the information you’ve gathered.

Since you already understand that the conclusions and rec- ommendations are the cornerstones of a report, you should understand that this section of a report should be as clear and logical as possible.

Sometimes, conclusions and recommendations evolve quite naturally from the content of your report. At other times, they require you to step back from the trees to see the forest. If the content of the report is particularly complex, you may need to give the conclusions and recommendations some careful reflection.

Any effective report should be headed toward some “exciting conclusion.” A fatal error for writers is to become wishy- washy and inconclusive when it comes time to draw conclusions and make recommendations. After all, a report may be the basis of future decisions that could affect many people within an organization, not to mention the people who depend on an organization’s products or services.

Conclusions reflect on the past and the present; rec- ommendations focus on the future.

Writing the Report

Assume you’re writing a formal report and you’ve come to a standstill in finding patterns and relationships that point to recommendations. Here are some questions you can ask yourself to help give you some direction:

• Who will be reading my report?

• What have I been asked to do in this report?

• What is the problem?

• What will my reader need to know to understand the problem?

• What expectations does my reader have about how the problem should be resolved?

When it comes to making recommendations, remember that while conclusions may be based on convictions, recommenda- tions are proposals for action. Recommendations require a report writer to engage his or her imagination. As a report writer, consider the implications of actions that may be taken, as well as future needs that may arise from those actions.

Figure 12 presents a conclusion and recommendation for the Mainline Hardware report. The conclusion focuses on past observations; the recommendation suggests future actions.

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CONCLUSION My study indicates that the areas around Pleasant Mill and Orchard Mountain, Pennsylvania, are ideal for the building of a new Mainline Hardware Store. Both areas have a stable popula- tion that’s employed in various types of occupations. Both areas have good access roads into the towns. The results of the surveys in both towns indicate that over 25 percent of the people surveyed are do-it-yourselfers, and approximately 30 percent plan major home improvements in the next three to five years.

The results of my study regarding our competition and other area businesses, however, give the edge to Pleasant Mill. In addition, the tax structure in Pleasant Mill is more advantageous for our type of business than the tax structure in Orchard Mountain.

RECOMMENDATION Both Pleasant Mill and Orchard Mountain, Pennsylvania, are good locations for a new Mainline Hardware Store. However, based on the competition and the tax structure in both areas, I rec- ommend building a new store in the Pleasant Mill area.

FIGURE 12—Sample Conclusion and Recommendation for a Formal Report

Writing the Report 39

Remember to give conclusions and recommendations the importance they deserve. If you’re presenting several conclu- sions or recommendations, number each one and list them separately so that none gets lost within a paragraph.

Conclusions and recommendations depend on the findings presented in the body of a report. Therefore, they should normally and logically follow immediately after the data and results in a report. Sometimes, however, a writer may place them right at the beginning of Part 2, just before the intro- duction and the body. There may be several reasons for this alternative approach:

1. The person or organization requesting the report requires this arrangement in formal reports.

2. The readers may be more likely to be engaged by the report if they’re aware of the conclusions and recommen- dations from the start.

3. It may simply be more effective to organize some reports this way. For example, if the conclusions or recommen- dations are somewhat controversial, the reader may be better motivated to search out the data and results in the body of the report.

Illustrating the Body of a Report

In this age of computer software, you can produce striking graphics for a report. You can insert photographs and add full-color pie charts and graphs. Even though these illustra- tions may appear very professional, be cautious in their use. In other words, don’t insert a colorful chart or graph simply to dress up your report. Include only those graphics that contribute to the clarity of your report.

When you do insert graphs and figures into a formal report, leave some white space around them. Don’t crowd them with text. Always place illustrations in the body of your text so they contribute to the goal of clarity. Avoid glitz and glamour that attempt to impress without adding any substance. In effect, keep your presentation formal by keeping your format clean and simple.

Always give conclusions and recommendations a strong placement in terms of the report for- mat. Make sure they follow logically from the findings you present.

If the material in your report is thorough, complete, and accu- rate, you won’t need glitzy illustrations to make it look good.

Writing the Report

Part 3: References and Appendices

Think of the third part of a formal report in terms of one guiding word—reference. In this section, you should provide what a reader may need to consult for further information. Some of the references to include in this part are

• A bibliography

• Endnotes

• Additional graphs, tables, and figures that may provide supplemental information, but would otherwise confuse and clutter the body of the report

• Glossary of key terms

• List of symbols and their meanings (for a technical report)

If the material you add at the end is several pages long, you should introduce it with a separate title page labeled Appendix. If the material fits on one page, you may put the title Appendix at the top of that page.

Report Styling

After you’ve completed the first draft of your formal report— and there should always be a first draft—you must begin the revision process. Revising a document doesn’t mean you read it quickly once, looking for misspelled words. In fact, you may have to read your material several times before you get it the way you want it to be.

During any revision process, you should be checking certain points in your report. Ask yourself the following questions:

• Is my information complete?

• Have I included unnecessary information?

• Is my report objective?

• Is my report interesting?

• Are my sentences grammatically correct?

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Writing the Report 41

Is My Information Complete?

For a report to fulfill its function, it must be complete. The content should address all of the relevant issues. It should answer all of the pertinent questions and clearly present all of the needed facts and figures.

In practice, making your reports complete may not be as easy as you may think. For example, you may not be able to give easy answers to all of the questions you should address. Consider the report that addressed the feasibility of opening a new Mainline Hardware Store. The main question to be addressed in that report is this: Will a hardware store in the Pleasant Mill or Orchard Mountain area be a profitable ven- ture for the company? Only time and experience will answer that question definitively. However, you can answer ques- tions like this: How many hardware stores are currently in the area? What volume of business do these stores do? Is the population of the area growing or shrinking? Do the home- owners in the area take good care of their properties?

Such questions are usually fairly easy to formulate and answer. Such obvious questions arise naturally in the course of your investigation or, just as often, in the process of writ- ing your first draft. These are the questions you know you must address in your report, and the answers to these ques- tions can help you formulate an educated answer to the main question.

However, answering questions that are obvious and apparent is often not enough. You must also look for and address hid- den questions that could influence the outcome of your report and the final form of your conclusions and recommendations. For example, the writer of the report on the hardware store should determine if there are enough people in the area to staff a large store and if there’s a parcel of land appropriate for the store. Such hidden questions must be answered if your report is to be useful and complete.

As you progress through the revision stage, you must also make sure you consider the effects that may result from your recommendations and their implementation. You must ask yourself, Will my recommendation have any adverse side effects? For example, consider the hardware store situation.

Writing the Report

How will our suppliers handle the increase in sales volume? Will we have to take managers from our current stores to train new personnel? When you can, you must identify, research, and answer these hidden questions if your report is to be complete, effective, and, therefore, worthwhile.

Have I Included Unnecessary Information?

During the revision stage of report writing, you must consider your readers’ needs when deciding if additional information will make your presentation more compelling. That is, you must ask yourself if adding information will enhance the clarity of your discussion and provide verifications that will make your report as effective as you can make it.

On the other hand, you must also consider your reader’s needs just as carefully in deciding what to cut or what to leave out. Too much information can detract from the impact of your report (Figure 13). Excess information can confuse readers by forcing them to focus on matters that aren’t directly

related to the purpose and objectives of your report. Too much information tends to dampen your presentation and make it less readable.

While revising your first draft, look for information that’s not absolutely nec- essary to your report. Perhaps the real secret to uncluttering is to ask yourself again and again, “What do my readers really need to know?” Your answer to that question should fill your report with just what’s needed and no more.

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All I wanted to know was the estimated completion date for Project A.

FIGURE 13—Don’t give your reader more infor- mation than he or she needs.

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If certain information isn’t immediately relevant to your report’s objectives, you should probably omit it. If you think it may help some people or if you’re unsure about whether to include it, put it in the appendix section with other supplemental facts, figures, and footnotes.

Is My Report Objective?

Being objective doesn’t mean that you completely ignore your impressions and insights. It does mean that you’re aware of the differences between your preferences and the facts and figures generated in your investigation of a problem. For example, if you present a variety of solutions in your report, you should treat each one with equal respect. In fact, you should treat the work on your report like a scientist. Your job isn’t about believing or feeling; it’s about finding out. Don’t begin your investigation burdened by your preconceptions.

A well-known professor of research methods for the human sciences likes to remind his students that he has no interest in their opinions. Nor, on the other hand, should any of them have any interest in his. In other words, when you’re dealing with research, you should concentrate on the facts, not on your opinions and wishes.

A formal report isn’t the proper place for airing your opinions; it’s not the time for you to get on a soapbox and deliver an oration. Your objective isn’t to persuade but to lay out a problem, investigate its nature, present the facts you’ve gathered, and attempt to draw impartial conclusions that lead to logical recommendations. Your sources of information may include personal experience, and your investigation may also reveal opinions from other people’s observations and experience. The trick is to weigh all of the evidence, all of the impressions, and all of the observations on the same scale.

Is My Report Interesting?

Your report can be logical and objective without being dry, tedious, and boring. How, you may ask, can that be the case when impartiality and objectivity are so important to the effectiveness of a report? The answer is simple: Give the readers what they need and want. This is possibly the best way to keep your readers’ interest.

To be objective, don’t let your feelings and wishes get in the way of accurate reporting.

Writing the Report

Remember, your report is designed to address a problem. Problems need to be solved because they cost time and money. They often reduce employee morale while giving headaches and raising the blood pressure of executives and managers. If you write your report effectively and it meets crucial needs, then it will offer a basis for decisions that need to be made.

Specifically, you can make your report valuable and interest- ing by highlighting the benefits of your recommendations. If your conclusions provide suggested solutions to important problems, highlight that fact. If your recommendations would lead to savings, cost-effectiveness, improved employee morale, happier customers, lowered downtime, or increased produc- tion, highlight those assertions.

Make sure the benefits you highlight are based on facts. An effective report is generally effective because it approaches a problem with a practical, logical analysis. There’s nothing wrong with approaching your investigation and your formal report with enthusiasm. However, during the revision phase, make sure you revise any information that includes emo- tional language or verbal fluff.

Don’t imagine that you can increase the impact of your report with words or phrases that are full of emotion. Avoid expressions that are anything other than objective. Eliminate words like outrageous, terrible, and disastrous. Say small instead of tiny, large instead of huge, inappropriate or erro- neous instead of ridiculous. When possible, use facts and figures instead of nonspecific words. For example, say three percent instead of tiny, 50,000 pounds instead of huge amount, or 75 percent more effective instead of wonderful.

Verbal fluff refers to the use of colorful and slick words that are more appropriate for advertisements than they are for an effective report. Avoid substituting verbal fluff for plain language. Your report will be judged on its substance, not its glitter.

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Be enthusiastic about your writing, but don’t let your emotions blind you to the facts.

Writing the Report 45

Are My Sentences Grammatically Correct?

Not all your readers will be aware of grammatical errors in your writing, but many will. And sometimes these mistakes can become stumbling blocks for those who are aware of them. If your report contains misspelled words and grammat- ical errors, your readers may wonder about the accuracy of the information it contains.

Many errors are easy to miss when you’re reviewing your work. Sometimes your eyes see what you expect to see rather than what’s actually on the paper. To help you eliminate such mistakes from your writing, carefully follow these suggestions:

• Use the spelling and grammar checkers on your word processing programs. Remember, however, that these tools aren’t foolproof.

• Very slowly read through your entire report, looking carefully at each word. Watch for misspellings that are tricky to find (for example, than instead of that, him instead of his, and so on). Make sure to double- check the spelling of proper nouns, especially people’s names.

• As you read, check for errors in grammar, capitalization, and punctuation. Refer to the material presented earlier if you’re unsure of how to handle something.

• Read your material as if you know nothing about the topic. Ask yourself if you would understand it if you were reading it for the first time.

• Check for transitions. Do your sentences flow from one to the other? Have you tied your paragraphs together so your readers can easily follow your train of thought?

• Check your table of contents. Are the page numbers correct? Do the headings in the contents match the headings in the material itself?

• Consider having a colleague read the report before you submit it. Sometimes a pair of fresh eyes will notice things you’ve overlooked.

Writing the Report

Summary

You’ll undoubtedly be expected to write reports of one kind or another for the rest of your professional career. Whether those reports are formal or informal—and regardless of their size, form, or subject—they should all convey information thoroughly, accurately, and objectively.

In this study unit, you’ve learned about the various forms of reports, and you’ve studied examples of informal and formal reports. You’ve also been introduced to the elements of style suitable to effective report writing. As you become more familiar with the purposes of the various report forms and types and as you gain experience in writing reports, your writing skills will improve. You learn the art of writing by writing. However, to enhance your rate of improvement, keep the following writing goals in mind:

• Strive for clarity in any report you write.

• Be exacting about the logic of what you write.

• Include only the information that the reader actually needs.

Finally, remember that writing is rewriting. Be ruthless with yourself about editing and revising your work. Make changes that will enhance the clarity of your presentation, and elimi- nate anything that doesn’t contribute to the purpose of your report.

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Self-Check 2 Questions 1–5: Indicate whether each of the following sentences is True or False.

_____ 1. Formal reports are generally written for distribution within a company.

_____ 2. Informal reports are generally shorter than formal reports.

_____ 3. The summary or abstract should come just before Part 2 of a formal report.

_____ 4. Generally, the more visual aids you include in a formal report, the easier it will be for a reader to understand.

_____ 5. Your conclusions and recommendations should appear in Part 3 of a formal report.

Answer questions 6 and 7 in the spaces provided.

6. What are the five components in Part 1 of a formal report?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

7. Why might you put your conclusions and recommendations before the body of a report?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

(Continued)

Writing the Report 47

Writing the Report48

Self-Check 2 Rewrite sentences in items 8–12 to eliminate emotional or vague words.

8. A lot of damage was done to the Charlotte plant.

__________________________________________________________________________

9. Automation of the drill presses would result in a huge production increase.

__________________________________________________________________________

10. The budget figures for 2003 recommended by management were ridiculous.

__________________________________________________________________________

11. There was a terrible sense of job dissatisfaction expressed by a whole bunch of employees.

__________________________________________________________________________

12. Many lousy oscillators will be replaced soon.

__________________________________________________________________________

Check your answers with those on page 49.

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Self-Check 1 1. The tao principle, which can be applied to any effective

report, requires a document to be thorough, accurate, and objective.

2. Situation A: field trip report

Situation B: troubleshooting report

Situation C: progress report

3. The four criteria used to consider each problem in a feasibility report are cost, ease of implementation, time constraints on implementation, and efficiency.

4. Status reports are a variation of progress reports, but they may be the same things in some organizations. The main difference between the two is in their emphasis. A progress report covers the past, present, and future of a project; a status report focuses more on the present, or current, condition of a project.

Self-Check 2 1. False

2. True

3. True

4. False

5. False

6. Part 1 of a formal report usually includes a title page, a cover memorandum or letter of transmittal, a table of contents, a list of illustrations, and an abstract or summary.

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s A

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Self-Check Answers50

7. There are three reasons why you might place the conclu- sions and recommendations before the body of a report: (1) The person or organization requesting the report requires this arrangement in formal reports. (2) The read- ers may be more likely to be engaged by the report if they’re aware of the conclusions and recommendations from the start. (3) It may simply be more effective to organize some reports this way. For example, if the con- clusions or recommendations are somewhat controversial, the reader may be better motivated to search out the data and results in the body of the report.

Your responses to items 8–12 may vary, but your revised sentences should contain substantive information in place of generalities and an avoidance of emotional expressions.

8. About $28,000 worth of damage was done to the roof and north wall of the Charlotte plant.

9. Automation of the drill presses would produce a 250 percent increase in production.

10. The $358,000 budget recommended by management was inadequate by $75,000.

11. Three out of five workers reported job dissatisfaction over 80 percent of their workdays.

12. Eighty percent of the broken or faulty oscillators will be replaced by October 30.

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Writing the Report

General Instructions Note: You can’t use Exam Express or Tel-Test for this exam.

Purpose This examination will give you practical experience in writing an informal report, using a memo format.

Preparation First, review the information on outlines in Organizing, Researching, and Illustrating Your Material. Next, review the instruction on informal and formal reports and format in this study unit. Then carefully reread the information about field- investigation reports, pages 7–11. You’ll be building on the background information, prewriting, memo, and letter about Phoenix Advertising you prepared for the exams in Writing Effective Communications and Organizing, Researching, and Illustrating Your Material, so make sure you’ve completed those exams already. Carefully review the background and prewriting work on which you based your exam for Organizing, Researching, and Illustrating Your Material.

Background The following is the basic scenario, with which you’re familiar.

Phoenix Advertising, with its main headquarters in Charlotte, North Carolina, serves clients that include banks, insurance companies, and retail chains. You’re vice president of human resources management at Phoenix and report directly to Gregory S. Forest, the company president. Mr. Forest advises you that in the last month, four clients have complained about the advertising work produced by the Roanoke, Virginia branch of the agency. He reminds you that the clients served from the Roanoke branch are vital to the overall success of Phoenix Advertising.

Mr. Forest also explains the little he’s been able to learn about the situation at the branch: In the last three months, two of the top management people—an art director and an

EXAMINATION NUMBER:

05002300

Examination52

account executive—have left the agency. Three of the graphic designers and four of the copywriters are threatening to quit because they feel their creative efforts are being rejected or revised without consultation. They want to be part of a collabo- rative team, not to simply produce work that the art directors and account executives can arbitrarily alter.

In an attempt to increase revenues, the branch is accepting new clients without evaluating the effects of the new accounts on the current project workload. As a result, without notice or compensation for the additional hours, all salaried employees are required to work long hours several days each week. Employee morale and productivity are declining day by day.

Your investigative goals are to • Identify and describe specifically the causes

(root issues underlying) each problem

• Show the impact of each problem on the business and on employee morale

• Provide specific recommendations for resolving the prob- lems to restore the Roanoke branch to full productivity

Process

Part A: Topic Outline

Prepare a topic outline (no sentences) using the four Roman numeral points shown below. Organize all of your prewriting and scenario information according to those four points. Subdivide as needed. Your outline must show depth of detail, as well as correct format. Remember, you’re preparing this outline after you’ve finished your investigation of the site in order to organize your thoughts for your report.

Your first Roman numeral point requires no subdivision; it merely states the purpose of the field investigation and gives the location. For the other points, add appropriate subdivisions and a significant number of details beyond the scenario based on your brainstorming. Remember that if you subdivide a point, you must have at least two divisions. For example, if you sub- divide to level 1, you must have at least a 2 as well. You can’t subdivide something by one. The following partial outline will guide you, but don’t be limited by the capital letters or numbers. Subdivide each level more or less as necessary to incorporate all your ideas.

Revise your outline for clarity and completeness. Make sure

Examination 53

your points follow each other in logical order and address the four Roman numeral points in the example. Make sure the topics within the subdivisions (A, B, C or 1, 2, 3) are of equal importance. Use parallel grammatical structure for each point. Subdivide a point only if you can provide at least two sub- divisions. Otherwise, don’t break down the point further.

• For Point I, did you state the purpose and branch location without subdivision?

• For Point II, did you list a variety of specific investigative methods-including with whom, where, when?

GUIDELINES FOR WRITING YOUR OUTLINE

When you write your outline, begin with the four points listed as Roman numerals, then subdivide and add details.

I. Purpose for investigating, including the location, the branch, and general nature of the problems

II. General approach to investigating the causes of each problem A. One way you investigated the problem, such as interviews (subdivide two or more levels as needed)

1. Four of the ten employees from the Graphics and Design Department 2. Head of the graphics department 3. All ten employees during a group meeting

B. Another way you investigated the problem [subdivide as needed] C. Another way you investigated the problem [subdivide as needed]

III. Overall findings about the underlying issues (primary findings as capital letters and specifics about that finding as numbers) A. First primary issue matched with first investigation method

1. One cause of the problem and/or the impact on business/morale 2. Another cause/impact 3. If appropriate, another cause/impact

B. Second primary issue (i.e. lack of communication) 1. Cause/impact 2. Cause/impact

C. Third finding/issue subdivided as necessary D. Continue to subdivide Roman numeral Point III to identify all your findings

IV. Overall recommendation for/approach to solving the issues you found A. Recommendation 1 (match with issue identified in IIIA.)

1. Details 2. Details

B. Recommendation (issue IIIB) C. Recommendation (issue IIIC)

Examination54

• In Point III, did you specify causes for each problem and show the impact of the problem (effect) on morale and productivity?

• In Point IV did you provide clear solutions that address each cause in the same order as you listed in III?

Part B: Informal Field-Investigation Report Begin a new page in the same Word document. Follow your outline as you draft your informal report using the basic memo format. Use the ABC method for developing paragraphs and the headings shown in the sample field-investigation report in this study unit. Your purpose is to inform the Phoenix executive team about your investigation and recommend solutions for the problems at Roanoke. After providing your purpose state- ment and location of the branch, use the following along with your outline to write your report.

1. For the Description of Investigation section, describe in complete sentences and paragraphs the ways you investi- gated the problems to find the causes of each problem and their impact on business/morale. This section must describe a variety of objective, specific methods used, such as interviewing employees and management, survey, attendance records, observation of office, budget review. Use different methods to verify facts and causes—don’t use just an employee’s word or feeling.

2. In the Results section, write a numbered list of findings using complete sentences in which you fully identify the source of the causes underlying each problem and show the impact of each cause on employee morale/business. Provide a clear analysis of each problem in the scenario— identify the causes underlying each and describe the impact on the company. Don’t merely summarize the scenario. By showing the underlying issues connected to specific impact/results, you establish a basis for your recommendations and show you’re addressing the root of the problems. You’ll probably need more than one sentence for several of your findings.

3. For your Conclusions section, clearly summarize the primary causes for the problems and their impact on business/morale. Use complete sentences and one or two paragraphs.

4. For the Recommendations section, list detailed solutions connected to the root cause of each problem, which you

Examination 55

identified in the Results section. Define specific procedures or processes that Phoenix must undertake to boost morale and profitability. List each recommendation in the same order as the causes you defined in Results. You may use imperative or declarative sentences.

Revising

Carefully revise your work according to the exam instructions and the evaluation criteria for this exam. Revise for clarity, content, and coherence. Edit grammar, spelling, and punctu- ation thoroughly.

Read through your work backwards, first word by word, then sentence by sentence, and then paragraph by paragraph.

Word by word. In this way you can locate spelling errors. Be alert—you may see the word here in your essay, a correctly spelled word. But also check the words on either side. Did you mean here in terms of location or did you mean the sense of hearing?

Sentence by sentence. By looking at each group of words separately from the context, you can more easily locate run-ons or fragments. You also need to compare the length and struc- ture of each sentence for variety. Also check the connections between sentences-have you provided your reader coherence?

Paragraph by paragraph. Locate the controlling idea of each paragraph and compare with your primary focus for the letter. Does the paragraph help to develop that focus in some specific way? Then match controlling ideas of each paragraph to the one before it and the one after it. Do they follow in logical order?

Evaluation Criteria The school will use the following criteria to evaluate your written work:

Topic Outline (15 points) How well did you apply required topic outline format, cover scenario, and parallel results with the recommendations?

Purpose and facility (5 points) Did you provide a clear purpose statement and a designate facility?

Examination56

Description of investigation (5 points) How completely and objectively did you describe your inves- tigative approach?

Results (15 points) How well did you detail specific cause and effect links with verifiable proof for the scenario?

Conclusion (10 points) How well did you detail specific cause and effect links with verifiable proof for the scenario?

Recommendations (15 points) Did you parallel your recommendations with the results? Do your suggestions identify a specific action that solves underly- ing issues?

Audience, coherence, and tone (10 points) Did you maintain a professional tone as part of a company team and develop the information logically?

Report format (5 points)

How well did you apply the sample memo format with headings?

Grammar, sentence structure, and mechanics (15 points) How well did you edit and proofread your document to ensure correct application of standard written conventions for American English?

General format (5 points) Did you correctly include and format the font, justification, and header information?

Submitting Your Exam Exam Format Instructions

When you’re satisfied with your revisions, type your final draft; include all portions of the exam in one document, beginning new pages as assigned. Use Times New Roman, font size 12. Format your document for left justification (all lines begin at the 1" margin except those you indent to begin each paragraph, leaving a ragged right margin).

Include the following information at the top of each page of your document. The best way to ensure the information is on each page is to enter everything using the Header option (usually located on the View or Insert menu).

Examination 57

Name and Student Number Exam number Page X of Y Your Mailing Address Your E-mail Address If you don’t include this information at the top of each page of your document, we can’t guarantee that your exam will be processed for grading. If your exam is processed without some of the information, you’ll lose at least ten points from your overall exam grade for neglecting to include this information. Note: Make sure you keep a copy of your work, since you’ll need it for the next study unit. You may submit this exam for evaluation by the school in one of two ways: By mail Make sure your typed final draft is on 8½-by-11-inch white paper. Send your work in the envelope provided or use your own envelope and mail it to Business and Technical Writing Instructor Penn Foster College 925 Oak Street Scranton, PA 18515 Be sure to include in the upper-left corner of the envelope your name, mailing address, student number, and exam number.

Online: You may submit your exam online.Please save your document in Rich Text Format (.rtf).

To submit exams online, use the online “Take an Exam” feature. When you enter the full exam number, an e-mail format will appear and allow you to attach your text docu- ment to submit the essay online (both memo and e-mail at the same time in one word document). You’ll receive an auto- reply confirmation e-mail within 24 hours that your exam has entered the school system. Be sure to set your e-mail browser to accept auto-replies.

Allow 7 to 10 business days for your exam to be evaluated. In the meantime, begin your next study unit.

We strongly recommend that you begin preparing a draft of your exam, but don’t submit it until you’ve received final evaluations on both of your previous exams. In that way, you can revise your work for this study unit based on the evaluators’ comments and include any information you may have missed or misunderstood in the scenario. After preparing the outline and report, set them aside. While you wait for previous exams to be returned, you may move on to the next study unit, Proposals and Special Projects (050018). Once you feel confident that you’ve learned the content, you can take the multiple-choice exam that accompanies this study unit, and begin to draft your final exam (050024).