learning environment and its impact on student’s academic achievement
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knowledgeable_and_supportive_school_leadership.pdf
CHAPTER FIVE
Knowledgeable and Supportive School Leadersh i p
In many ways, however, the question of how much impact school
leaders have on student outcomes is a flawed one, because the
answer surely depends on what it is that leaders do. The contribution
of leadership research should be to identify the types of leadership
that have relatively more or less impact on students, so that they
can be emphasised in leadership preparation and development
programmes and be better supported by education policies and
infrastructure. (Robinson, 2007, p. 5)
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Bishop, R., O'Sullivan, D., & Berryman, M. (2010). Knowledgeable and supportive school leadership. (Chapter 5, pp.95-111). In Scaling up education reform. Addressing the politics of disparity Wellington: NZCER Press. (ISBN 978-1-877398-54-4)
Introduction So far in this book we have identified the central importance of changing classroom
relationships and interactions to bring about change in student achievement and
disparity levels. We have argued that such changes on their own are not sufficient to
bring about sustainable school-wide changes. Institutional, organisational and structural
changes are necessary to create contexts in which classroom learning can be responded
to, supported and enhanced so that student achievement can improve and disparities
can be reduced. It is leaders who drive these changes.
We now turn to the question of "what leaders need to know and do to support teachers
in using the pedagogical practices that raise achievement and reduce disparities" (Robinson
et al., 2007, p. 2). This focus on leadership is central to the GPIlSEO model because, as
Leithwood, Seashore Louis, Anderson, and Wahlstrom (2004) concluded from a detailed
review of leadership literature, "leadership is second only to classroom instruction among
all school-related factors that contribute to what students learn at school" (p. 7). In the
GPILSEO model, effective leadership of sustainable educational reform;
• establishes and develops specific measurable goals so that progress can be shown, monitored and acted upon
• supports the development and implementation of new pedagogic relationships and interactions in the classroom
• changes the institution, its organisation and structures • spreads the reform to include staff, parents, community, reform developers and policy
makers so that a new school culture is developed and embedded
• develops the capacity of people and systems to produce and use evidence of student progress to inform change
• promotes and ensures that the ownership of the reform shifts are within the school.
Leadership has an overall purpose It is important to reiterate that these leadership activities have an overall purpose, which is
to directly or indirectly reduce educational disparities through improving student outcomes.
Fullan (2003) sees this as having a moral purpose, which at the school level means:
that all students and teachers benefit in terms of identified desirable goals, that the gap
between the high and low performers becomes less as the bar for all is raised, that ever-deeper
educational goals are pursued, and that the culture of the school becomes so transformed that
continuous improvement relative to the previous three components become built in. (p. 31)
Elmore (2004) supports this purpose and argues that the primar:y purpose of
educational leadership is the "guidance and direction of instructional [pedagogical]
improvement" (p. 13). Robinson et al. (2009) found, in the empirical part of their best
evidence synthesis of leadership studies, that pedagogic or instructional leadership
that involves a "close involvement of leadership in establishing an academic mission,
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monitoring and providing feedback on teaching and learning and promoting the
importance of professional development" (p. 55) has nearly four times the impact on
student outcomes as the other commonly promoted form ofleadership, transformational.
However, they also warn against dismissing the qualities of transformational leadership
through creating false dichotomies between these two types of leadership.
In effect they are suggesting that leadership needs to exhibit characteristics that
encompass the broad rubric of pedagogic or instructional leadership, with its unequivocal
focus on improving student outcomes, as well as incorporating those aspects of
transformational leadership, and what Shields (2003) terms "transformative leadership",
into the mix of what constitutes effective leadership. In other words, the leadership mix
or distribution in schools needs to include instructional leaders' unequivocal focus on
improving student outcomes through the provision of support for teaching and learning,
transformational leaders' concerns with the collective interests of the group-the "ability
to inspire and motivate others and develop group commitment to a common vision" (p.
vii)-and transformative leaders' focus on creating the conditions or contexts that release
others' capacity for self-determination in a manner that promotes the establishment of
collaborative relationships for attaining the desired end.
Along with Robinson et al. (2009), from our experience we would suggest that creating
dichotomies in leadership styles can promote the notion that there is a distinction
between tasks and relationships; that is, between "leading through progressing tasks
and leading through relationships and people" (p. 8). There is also a danger that we
talk about there being a sequence of, first, developing relationships, then developing
tasks; in other words, get the relationship right then pursue the common task, the
educational challenges, the goal setting and such like. In contrast, Robinson et al. argue
that "relationship skills are embedded in every dimension" (p. 8). In goal setting, for
example, "effective leadership involves not only determining the goal content (task
focus), but doing so in a manner that enables staff to understand and become committed
to the goal [relationship focus]" (p. 8). So whether we are focusing at the level of the
classroom, school or system, relationships are part and parcel of everyday activities that
seek to improve student outcomes.
At the classroom level we learnt from detailed interviews with 350 Maori students in
2004 and 2005 that the teaching approaches they preferred-and, indeed, within which
they could achieve--were not a matter of teachers being either task or relationship oriented,
but both simultaneously (Bishop et aI., 2007). These Maori students clearly understood
that when both were happening at the same time they were able to engage effectively with
learning and see their achievement levels improve. They were able to describe a range of
scenarios. The first was when a teacher was task oriented but did not clearly show that
they cared for the learning of their students: learning did not occur. Second, if the teacher
demonstrably cared for the learning of the students but was unable to engage them in
meaningful learning interactions, again they were unable to learn. It was only when their
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teachers were task and relationship oriented simultaneously-that is, they were able to
demonstrate on a daily basis that they cared for the learning of their students, set high
expectations for performance and classroom management (including their own subject
content knowledge), as well as being able to use a range of discursive interactions and
strategies, including formative assessment-that they knew they were going to learn and
achieve. One student commented: "She's dedicated to what we do in our class. I think
it's just her passion, that she likes seeing kids achieving instead of failing. Feels cool, that
we've got someone who's gonna help us get through school".
Fullan (2003) notes that this task-relationship intersection is based on what Bryk and
Schneider (2002) term "relational trust", which their research showed was fundamental
to improved student achievement. Just as at the classroom level, relational trust is also
fundamental to creating an effective school culture. Robinson et al. (2009) suggest that
practical steps for developing relational trust include:
establishing norms of integrity, showing personal regard for staff, parents and students;
demonstrating role competence and personal integrity through modeling appropriate
behaviour, following-through when expectations are not met, demonstrating consistency
between talk and action, and challenging dysfunctional attitudes and behaviours. (p. xv)
We would add to this list, from our experiences in working with educational reform
for indigenous students, those qualities created in classrooms and across schools where
teachers and leaders create learning relationships wherein learners' culturally generated
sense-making processes are used and developed so that they may successfully participate
in problem-solving and decision-making interactions. Such relationships must promote
the knowledge, learning styles and sense-making processes of the participants as
"acceptable" or "legitimate". Leaders should interact with others in such a way that new
knowledge is co-created within contexts where all can safely bring what they know and
who they are to the learning relationship; and where what participants know, who they
are and how they know what they know form the foundations of interaction patterns.
In short, where culture counts (Bishop & Glynn, 1999).
Bryk and Schneider (2002) stress that developing relational trust is effective because
it reduces feelings of vulnerability among teachers faced with new and somewhat
daunting tasks associated with the reform initiative. The development of relational
trust facilitates collaborative problem solving that allows for curriculum alignment and
collaborative decision making based on evidence of student learning; supports internal
in-school accountability that all students learn; and reduces the tendency to look for
external agencies to blame. Relational trust is also fundamental to addressing the need
for balancing the inevitable tension between individual autonomy and self-determination
and the need for collective and collaborative action towards a common goal. Bryk and
Schneider conclude that relational trust provides the moral resource that is needed to
sustain "the effort of the long haul", which is needed for school reform. Teachers need
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to feel they are working in a context where their strong personal commitments to the
organisation and its goals are respected, valued and reciprocated. Just as the students
in the example above were willing to give their best efforts when they felt they were
with a teacher who ensured their success at school, so too when school! reform leaders
create a context based on relational trust, all school participants are "more willing to
give extra effort even when the work is hard" (Full an, 2003, p. 43).
As this illustration shows, leadership is not just confined to principals, although
much of what we say in this chapter will clearly resonate with them. Rather, we are
talking about allleaders----the school's trustees, the principal, members of the senior
management team, heads of departments and syndicates, developers and facilitators
of professional development, educational policy makers and analysts, teachers, parents
and students-since all of these people exercise leadership in some form during their
daily interactions.
Distributed leadership
The model of leadership we are promoting is one termed "distributed" by Elmore
(2000) and is also one of collective responsibility, mainly because no one person can
be responsible for all the leadership activities detailed above. It is our belief that the
strength of the school will be greatly enhanced when these leadership activities are
undertaken by all those involved in a collaborative way. This is particularly important
secondary schools for, as Robinson et al. (2007) note, "size, more differentiated
structures and specialist teaching culture" (p. 21) limit the degree to which the principal
can be directly involved in the pedagogic process. This points clearly to the need for
leaders other than the principal to be prominent in many of the activities. For example, it
may be appropriate for heads of departments or knowledgeable and skilled professional
developers to be involved in providing feedback to teachers in their classrooms in
secondary schools, whereas this may well be a task that principals of primary schools
may be willing and able to cover.
Like the New American Schools project (Berends, Bodily, & Kirby, 2003), the Chicago
Annenberg Challenge (Smylie, Wenzel, & Fendt, 2003) found that although principal
leadership is critical, it becomes ineffective if it is leadership to the exclusion of all others.
In-school leadership is best not left to just one person. The Inner London Education
Authority's Junior School Project's key factors of school effectiveness that were within
the school's own sphere of influence included:
• the head teacher's leadership of assessment and professional development
• the deputy head teacher's involvement in policy decisions
• the involvement of teachers in curriculum development
• budgetary priorities and policy development (Mortimore & Whitty, 1997).
Without diminishing the role of the principal, this supports the notion of shared
"pedagogic leadership" proposed in the New Zealand Ministry of Education's best
evidence syntheses (Alton-Lee, 2004, p. 2).
Although distributed leadership can contribute to a coherent sense of direction and
strengthen the basis for reform to sustain itself, it remains true that if the principal is
not instrumental in setting the vision for reform and ensuring the necessary responsive
cultural and organisational environment, as Hall and Hord (2006) argue, space is created
for individuals or cliques to take over the leadership of the reform or to destabilise the
reform. We have also found that when there is a change in principal, this can be a time
when the reform's aims are seriously challenged to the point of being annihilated by
the new principal determining a new direction for the school.
We now tum to a detailed investigation of the qualities of effective leadership,
organised in terms of the GPILSEO model. A summary is then provided in Table 5.1.
The qualities of effective leadership
1. Effective leadership establishes and develops specific measurable goals so that progress can be shown, monitored and acted upon
Effective leaders establish explicit academic goals that are "vital for maintaining a
coherent and stable student-centered vision" (McDougall, Saunders, & Goldenberg,
2007, p. 53). Robinson (2007) explains that:
Goal setting works by creating a discrepancy between what is currently happening [and]
some desired future state. When people are committed to a goal, this discrepancy is
experienced as constructive discontent that motivates goal-relevant behaviour. Goals focus
attention and lead to more persistent effort than would otherwise be the case. (p. 10)
Leithwood and Jantzi (2006) argue that people are motivated to set goals and work
towards them when individual:
evaluation of present circumstances indicates that it is different from the desired state,
when the goals are perceived to be hard but achievable, and when they are short term but
understood within the context of longer term and perhaps more important, more obviously
valuable purposes. (p. 206)
For an individual to motivate others, however, the individual must possess a high level
of self-efficacy or agency. Leadership, therefore, ought to be based on the assumption
that "the school improvement process must be conceived of as relating to the school,
subgroups and individuals simultaneously, yet still leading ... to a coordinated, positive
set of results" (Lindahl, 2007, p. 321).
Effective principals lead individuals and groups as well as institutions (Lindahl, 2007).
Principals need to inspire collective efficacy, which means they must see themselves as
having a clear sense of purpose. Holloman, Rouse, and Farrington (2007) argue that a
major impediment to implementing large-scale reforms is that "[t]he culture of today's
school does not promote permanent fixes. In fact, the cynicism that many educators
feel today is a result of years of cyclical changes in programmes and innovations"
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(p. 437). Leadership, therefore, begins with a convincing and authoritative introduction
to the reform, especially to influential school staff members (Hall & Hord, 2006). The
principal sets the school's tone, and the authority vested in the principal makes the
office instrumental to reform. Equally, a new principal unconvinced by the reform's
objectives or methodologies has considerable power to undermine reform, even where
a school board of trustees directs otherwise.
The school's capacity to effect change is not simply the sum of individuals' capacities.
No individual can work effectively in a vacuum, which is why leadership must attend
to the co-ordination of all individual activities towards a shared goal. But ultimately the
specifics of change should be demonstrably linked to the reform's wider vision:
Leaders matter. What leaders think, say, and do-and who they are when they come to work
each day-profoundly affects organizational performance, the satisfaction they and those
with whom they interact derive from their work, and their ability to sustain engagement
with their work over the period of time necessary to oversee significant improvements.
(Sparks, 2005, p. 7)
Leadership, in what the Education Review Office (2002) calls good practice schools
for Maori, involves a commitment to improving Maori achievement that is driven by
a vision that is shared by the board of trustees, principal and teachers. In this context
it is incumbent upon school leadership to (a) understand what is being promoted by
reform initiatives, and (b) be simultaneously responsive and proactive in promoting
and supporting the reform through institutional and structural change.
Leadership needs to be proactively directed towards a common goal of establishing
the school as a high-performing institution where high levels of student achievement
and learning are normalised. This means that J/[i]f goals are to function as influential
co-ordinating mechanisms, they need to be embedded in school and classroom routines
and procedures" (Robinson, 2007, pp. 9-10). Leaders of high-achieving schools are
more likely to see that their goals and expectations are well understood and to see that
academic achievement is recognised and conveyed to the community. Staff consensus
about goals is more likely to characterise high-performing schools (Robinson, p. 10).
Goals need to be specific, because specificity allows self-regulation: "it's possible to
judge progress and thus adjust one's performance ... Goal-setting increases performance
and learning" (Robinson, p. 11). As Leithwood and Riehl (2003) argue, effective leaders
understand the importance of leadership that sets relevant examples for staff and others
to follow that are cohesive and in line with the school values and goals.
The professional development staff need in order to develop the capacity to set goals
It is important that leaders of educational reform initiatives, such as professional
development facilitators, themselves set-and support teachers to set-specific goals
rather than unspecified changes or developments. This is because "the potency of
leadership for increasing student achievement hinges on the specific classroom practices
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which leaders stimulate, encourage and promote" (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2006, p. 223).
Achieving these goals requires leadership that looks beyond short-term solutions to
immediate problems: a mixture of long-term and short-term goals is necessary. Schmoker
(1999) promotes the setting of short-term goals as being motivational, but Hargreaves
and Fink (2006) warn that setting short-term goals may promote the practice of teaching
so that students can pass the next test. Focusing on long-term learning gains is necessary
and will focus teaching activities on sustainable long-term change designed to eliminate
barriers to achievement. Short-term goals are, however, necessary to monitor progress
towards the long-term goals.
Goal setting is encouraged at a number of levels in Te Kotahitanga: school wide,
among groups and individual teachers, and within classrooms. Boards of trustees and
principals are supported to set specific measurable goals for those students not currently
being served well by the school. Teachers are supported to set individual goals in
feedback sessions following formal observations in their classrooms, and group goals
during collaborative co-construction meetings. Students are supported to set goals based
on examinations of their performance.
2. The need to promote and support pedagogic reform
Effective leadership for sustainable educational reform promotes and is responSive to
the development and implementation of pedagogic relationships and interactions in the
classrooms that promote the reduction of educational disparities through improvements
in student learning and achievement. Effective leaders do this by providing and/
or supporting the means/process of professional learning for teachers that allows
embedding the conceptual depth of the reform into the theorising and practice of
classroom teachers, principals and national policy makers. Teachers' conceptual
depth of the theoretical principles that underlie the reform is a major indicator of
sustainability.
As we identified in Chapter Three, teachers and school leaders who have a deep
understanding of the underlying theories and principles and who can implement
appropriate practices are better able to respond flexibly to new demands and changing
contexts in ways that will sustain and perhaps deepen the reform over time. Reform
without depth of understanding will trivia lise the initiative, and teachers and schools
will soon revert to old explanations and practices. Two of the dimensions of leadership
identified by Robinson et al. (2009) support this understanding. The first is that which
"involves leadership of effective teaching, including how to improve and evaluate it,
along with skills in developing collegial discussions on instructional matters" (p. x).
Their empirical analysis shows this dimension to have a moderate impact on student
outcomes. It includes such activities as:
• leaders being actively involved in collegial discussions on how teaching practice
affects student achievement
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• an active oversight and co-ordination of the teaching programme
• involvement in teacher observation and feedback
• leading staff to systematically monitor student progress to inform their ongoing teaching programme.
Coupled with this dimension is a focus on promoting and participating in teacher
learning and development. This dimension includes actions such as leaders using their
own knowledge to help staff solve teaching problems, and working directly with teachers
or subject department heads to plan, co-ordinate and evaluate the impact of teachers
and teaching on student learning and achievement through the monitoring of student
progress in relation to what is being taught and how it is being taught.
It is also important that leaders are seen to be learners themselves as an integral part of the
whole learning process. The evidence gathered by Robinson et a1. (2009) showed that:
leaders who are actively involved in professionalleaming gain a deeper appreciation of
what teachers require to achieve and sustain improvements in student learning, which
enables them to discuss the changes with teachers and support them in making appropriate
adjustments to class organisation, resourcing and assessment procedures. (p. xi)
In short, the more leaders focus their relationships, their work and their learning
on the core business of teaching and learning, the greater their influence on student
outcomes will be.
The New American Schools project (Berends et aI., 2003) found that principals'
involvement in plarming, co-ordinating and supporting teaching was the single most
significant contributing factor to project implementation by the classroom teacher.
Principals take an active role in classroom-level implementation of reform through
ensuring the effective use of formative assessment. They also facilitate curriculum
coherence, which in Robinson's (2007) terms means that "common objectives and
assessment tools make it easier for teachers to focus on teaching problems and make
a more sustained effort to develop or acquire the expertise needed to solve them"
(p. 15). Principals help teachers to judge their own performance relative to goals through
classroom observations and feedback. Among the characteristics of effective principal
leadership were the clear expression of expectations, supported by adequate resources,
a personal interest in the project's professional development and a willingness to engage
in pedagogic discussion with teachers. The project found a positive correlation between
teacher implementation and teacher perception of principal leadership. There were
further positive correlations between these factors and improved levels of children's
achievement. Implementation was, however, impeded by high principal turnover, even
where the new principal was supportive of the project (Berends et aI., 2003).
Effective principals in this project ensured there was immediate and accessible
advice available to teachers (Berends et aI., 2003). Teachers also reported that the in-
school professional development facilitators were more likely to gain professional
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respect from their colleagues than were outside advisers, because as immediate
colleagues they had already demonstrated their professional credibility. Teachers were
more likely to accept their advice and also regarded them as a source of motivation.
Similarly, Farrell (2003) found that in his Comprehensive School Reform programme,
called Expeditionary Learning, the single most significant predictor of success was the
principal's understanding and commitment to the programme. In successful schools,
commitment was demonstrated by a willingness to remain in the school and lead the
project for five years or more.
Creating, promoting and developing professional learning communities
According to Robinson (2007), " [s]uccessful leadership influences teaching and learning
through both face-to-face relationships and by structuring the way that teachers do
their work" (p. 10). Creating and sustaining effective school-wide professionalleaming
communities would appear to be a critically important function of leadership. A
professionalleaming commlmity in this sense is an inclusive group of people, motivated
by a shared learning vision, who support and work with each other and who find
ways-inside and outside their immediate community-to inquire about their practice
and together learn new and better approaches that will enhance all pupils' learning
(Stoll, & Seashore Louis, 2007).
The Chicago Annenberg Challenge (Smylie et a1., 2003) found that professional
learning communitie~'bf teachers foster successful project implementation by providing opportunities for reflection, inquiry, collaboration and productive "intellectual
tensions". Successful schools exhibited orderly conduct, strong school-community
relationships, a well placed and co-ordinated curriculum that extends beyond basic
sktlls to "challenging intellectual work", and where "instructional time is protected
from interruption" (pp. 142-143).
The professional learning community will not develop of its own accord, and is
necessarily a product of leadership. It must be consciously created, and thoughtfully
and systematically sustained. Consideration needs to be given to ways of incorporating
meetings into school routine without additional cost and without closing the school for
the duration of the meeting (DuFour, 1998). This emphasises the need for the reform to
be placed at the centre of school routine, such that the necessity of each school meeting
can be assessed against its contribution to the reform. Schools might then consider
prioritising meeting agendas in terms of their contribution to reform goals. In order
to do this, Holloman et a1. (2007) suggest that they "[m]ake sure that there are no
committees [or meetings] within your school's organizational structure that have no
purpose. Aimless committees [and meetings] represent a lack of organization and can
promote misalignment" (p. 440).
Robinson and Timperley (2007), referencing Bolam, McMahon, Stoll, Thomas, and
Wallace's (2005) work, warn that there is little evidence that professional learning
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communities have a strong impact on student outcomes unless they promote "the type
of teacher learning that makes a difference to their students" through "an intensive
focus on the relationship benveen what the teacher had taught and what the students
had learned" (p. 11). By this it is meant that in these professional learning communities
leaders not only supply or demonstrate how teachers can obtain evidence of student
participation and learning, but also lead collaborative problem-solving and decision-
making discussions about the relationship between teaching practice and student
outcomes based on collaborative analysis of this evidence. In other words, leaders focus
lithe group on how to move beyond analysis of the data to identifying specific teaching
practices to help a particular student or group of students" (Robinson & Timperley,
2007, p. 12). In this role leaders are facilitators of student learning rather than leaders
of collegial discussions.
3. The need to redesign the institutional and organisational framework
Leaders need to create opportunities for connections to, and collaboration with, other
teachers engaged in the reform. As we have seen, the institutionalisation of a means to
ensure that this happens in a systematic way is an essential element of sustaining change.
Such institutionalisations need to be prioritised so that they are seen to support the efforts
of teachers and are aligned with, and indeed can inform, school policies and strategic
plans. Effective leadership that aims to sustain an educational reform needs to strategically
promote and align organisational and structural changes with the need to embed the reform
within the everyday practices of the schooL This will include changing timetables, meeting
times and agendas, staff recruitment proceQIures, staff promotion criteria, the provision
of support and space for in-school professional development staff, the establishment of
permanent positions for professional development staff in the school, the reshaping of
the role of the heads of departments and the reshaping of the composition of the senior
management team to include senior professional developers, among others.
New Zealand schools are self-managing. Responsibility for operational decisions,
including the provision of professional learning opportunities for the staff of the school,
has been devolved to the governance of boards of trustees. This includes the provision
and allocation of funds from schools' budgets for the ongoing provision of professional
learning opportunities for staff. The prioritising of the allocation of a significant amount of
funding that could be directed towards sustaining the reform, once the externally generated
support and funding are withdrawn, is thus in the hands of New Zealand schools.
Current evidence from the Te Kotahitanga programme (Bishop et aI., 2007), based
on our five-year study of facilitating teachers to implement changes in classroom
relationships and interactions, shows that gains in teacher competence in the practices
that are fundamental to the implementation of the Effective Teaching Profile continue
to be made over time. It follows that if these gains are to continue and remain, it is
important to maintain the facilitated activities that support these gains: the formal
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term-by-term cycle of observations, feedback, co-construction meetings and shadow
coaching, supplemented by ongoing content and strategy workshops.
These conditions mean that, for Te Kotahitanga, once the external support has been
withdrawn from the school, the professional development, Cycle Plus,! needs to be
maintained within the schools, with its attendant staffing and organisational support. For
leaders, thi'> means they will need to (re )prioritise and rationalise resource expenditure.
For some this will involve conflict as previous resource allocations are challenged, but
alignment of resource allocation to the visions and goals of the school is necessary, and
unless resource procurement and allocation are strategically handled, the reform will
face great challenges and will probably remain as a "project" on the periphery of the
school's activities rather than being centralised, as is necessary for success.
4. The role of effective leaders in spreading the reform
Effective l~adership that aims to sustain an educational reform needs to develop a means
to !6pread the reform so that parents, whanau and community are engaged in a way that
addresses their aspirations for the education of their children. Through these actions
we would expect to see a reconnection of parents and f'1milies with the educational
advancement of their children, and an enormous change in the life chances and lifestyles
of those people currently underserved by the education system. Communicating the
intentions of the reform and signalling that the school is prepared to be accountable
to the community are necessary steps in promoting effective relationships with the
community. One way this is done in Te Kotahitanga is for the schools to hold arumal
staff induction workshops at local marae, hosted by local Maori families. At these events
there are opportunities for the leaders, both formally and informally, to inform the local
community, in a very convivial setting, of their intentions to develop and/or persist
with the goal of raising the achievement of their children.
Communication of the outcomes of the reform in terms of raised student achievement
is also important on a regular basis. Again we find that when students begin to achieve
well at school, parents who have previously been absent from parent-teacher report
meetings, for example, become only too visible. This visibility then begins to be seen in
other activities of the school's life. Success attracts success. Principals and other teacher
leaders can help the wider school community to understand the changes that are needed
to strengthen teaching and learning. Research undertaken by Poutama Pounamu,
detailed in Chapter Seven, illustrates how effective home and school relationships can
further promote student learning.
Leaders need to spread the reform to otherst within and outside the schoot so as to
align the new norms of the reform within the school, within the norms of supporting
institutions and within communities in association with the school. Spreading the reform
to include all staff can pose problems and is something that needs to be undertaken
1 See Chapter One for details of this process.
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with care. Holloman et al. (2007) propose a "purpose-driven" leadership model, which
requires an organisation to "define its purpose, maintain integrity ... prevent burnout
and sustain vitality" (p. 438). The model supposes a school culture in which there is
constant reflection on why certain methodologies are favoured over others. Leithwood
and Riehl (2003) suggest that educational improvement often means making personal
changes to the way responses have been undertaken in the past, and in order to achieve
this, effective principals must respect staff and show they are concerned for their feelings.
Therefore, as Bolman and Deal (2003) note, effective leaders need to learn how to cope
with power and conflict, and how to build coalitions, hone their political skills and deal
with internal and external politics.
A questioning culture is one that will best support such developments. It is a way
of challenging people more inclined to being negative about a reform to refocus their
attention on constructive criticism that "could more clearly define the purpose of the
school". In tum, refocusing resistance can foster "purposeful dialogue" (Holloman et al.,
2007, p. 438). However, these ideas presuppose reform that is theoretically well informed
and supported by valid empirical data. Robinson (2007) considers that "[p ]eople cannot
adapt descriptions of effective practice to their own contexts unless they understand the
theoretical principles that explain why they work and under what conditions". Further,
a[i]t is the combination of description, practical example and theoretical explanation that
makes for powerful professionalleammg" (p. 5). To this end, leaders are reliant on robust
evidence to support the direction of the reform initiative (see below). This means that
any attempts to weaken the connection between research and practice can be expected to
seriously compromise schoolleadersT capacity to support sustainable reform. Whatever
the caseT it is important that as many teachers as possible are included in the reform,
because "effective professional development is likely to involve teachers investigating
pedagogy and analysing data within their own settings" (Alton-Lee, 2004, p. 10), and
because "quality of teaching is critical to ... a shift" in student achievement (p. 4).
5. Effective leaders develop the capacity of people and systems to identify, gather and use evidence
"Effective leaders assess how well the school is performing, ask critical and constructive
questions, emphasize the use of systematic evidence and encourage careful monitoring of
pupils' progress" (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003, cited in Atkinson, 2006, p. 7). Fundamental
to Collins's (2001) study of what moves an organisation from good to great is the
understanding that effective leaders work continuously to select the right people, and
to support and develop them. For example, Te Kotahitanga professional development
facilitators as leaders of professionalleammg develop the capacity of teachers to identify
and continually question their discursive positioning and theories of action by providing
professionalleaming opportunities that use alternative theories, evidence and vicarious
experiences. Leaders also provide the necessary resources and tools for teachers to be
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able to engage effectively with the reform goals and processes. Robinson et al. (2009) note
that leaders of sustainable educational reform are able to reshape the situation in which
they work so that others can learn to do their job strategically by selecting, developing
and using tools that will assist their own learning and promote student learning. They
found that these tools include physical qualities such as classroom furniture and smart
whiteboards. However, of primary importance is what they termed" smarttools", which
include software for student management systems to provide teachers with differentiated
data about student attendance and achievement, formative assessment packages such as
asTTle and PAT, schools' strategic plans, policy documents and the means of reporting
student progress to the students, their families and the community.
Leaders also support the use of reform-specific smart tools such as those that enable
teachers to critically reflect on their practice and theorise in such a way as to bring about
changes in practice. One such example;from Te Kotahitanga (elaborated in Chapter
Two) is the PSIRPEG model, which)ollowing the intervention elements of observations,
feedback, co-construction and shadow coaching, affords teachers the opportunity to
plan for their next learning activities, choose appropriate strategies, identify appropriate interactions, identify the relationships that are likely to develop the positionings that will be supported and the positive student experiences that will lead to reaching the goals of improved student achievement.
As Te Kotahitanga grows and develops in each school, systemic and institutional
developments are necessary to support the changes taking place in the classroom. An
area that needs to be developed is that of accurately measuring student attendance data,
stand-downs, suspensions, early-leaving exemptions, retention rates and achievement
data. There are two reasons for this. First, it allows teachers the opportunity to reflect
collaboratively on these data to inform their ongoing practice. Second, they can use
the same data for summative purposes to identify if there is a relationship between the
implementation of the educational reform in question and positive changes in student
participation and achievement. In order for these objectives to be met, it is important
that the project schools be able to undertake the task of data gathering and processing
in real time. To do so they will need to continue to develop the use of electronic student
management systems so that the schools can use the data for formative purposes in
collaborative settings, and then aggregate the data for summative purposes.
Probably more important than the systems for providing the evidence on the basis
of which teachers can collaboratively make practice-changing decisions is the need for
capacity building, in the sense of leaders of the reform providing professional learning
opportunities for teachers to learn how to both identify and gather appropriate evidence
for learning, and to be able to use evidence of student learning to ascertain where and
how to modify their classroom practice through the ongoing provision of appropriate
and responsive professional learning opportunities.
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6. Leaders take ownership of the project
Effective leadership that aims to sustain an educational reform takes ownership of the
reform. The first characteristic of ownership is a leader taking responsibility for the
performance of students who are currently not benefiting from their school/system.
This involves careful disaggregation of data to identify the learning outcomes of specific
groups of students and the implementation of processes to ensure this information is
disseminated and acted upon. To do 50, leaders must work towards building a school
culture that focuses on an ongoing reduction in educational disparities through the
ongoing improvement of student learning and outcomes. To ensure this happens in
an ongoing way, leaders must take responsibility for ensuring that the integrity of the
means of producing increased achievement gains for the target students (such as the
Cycle Plus and the facilitation teams in the Te Kotahitanga project) is not jeopardised
by conflicting and competing interests and agendas.
Leaders also need to take responsibility for building capacity among students, staff and
other leaders so that they are able to take responsibility for student outcomes, rather than
focusing solely on accountability systems. This aspect of leadership is often at odds with
national policies that limit the time available to develop support for the development of
in-school capacity. Nevertheless, persistence in pursuit of the goals of reducing disparities
is the hallmark of effective leadership. The unrelenting pursuit of goals that will also
involve leaders in creating classrooms, a school culture and education systems where
new situations are addressed from an in-depth understanding of the reform's aims and
approaches rather than from past practice is crucial. Past practices have led us to a situation
of educational disparities being based on ethnic lines. Effective leaders express their
dissatisfaction with this situation and are prepared to own the consequences of promoting
and sustaining educational reforms to reduce disparities through targeting and raising the
achievement of students who are currently not well served by the education system.
Table 5.1 summarises the preceding discussion, which has been based on the GPILSEO
model.
Table 5.1 GPILSEO: A summary of effective leadership ; -~-- ~ --~~~ --~--~-~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .~. --------------,
I GPILSEO Tasks associated with each GPILSEO element
I Leaders establish Leaders: 'II and develop specific • build from the dissonance that is created when the difference
measurable goals so between the current reality and the desired state is highlighted • that progress can be • learn how to set smart goals for student partiCipation and • shown, monitored achievement in its widest sense lover time and acted • develop specific goals to ensure that all involved can judge their
upon. progress toward the goals and responsively adjust their practice or learning
• have the capacity (self-belief) to meet goals from their current understanding, or be able to learn what is needed to meet the goals
• communicate with others about performance in terms of goals
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I GPILSEO
Leaders support the development and implementation of new pedagogic relationships and interactions in the classroom.
, Leaders change , the institutional
framework, its organisation and structure, to support the reform within the schools.
Leaders need to be knowledgeable about their role in the reform.
Tasks associated with each GPILSEO element
• support the means of embedding the conceptual depth of the reform into the theorising and practice of the classroom teachers, principals and national administrators (teachers' conceptual depth is a major indicator of sustainability)
• focus their relationships, their work and their learning on the core business of teaching and learning, which increases their influence on student outcomes
• create learning contexts in which learners gain the capacity and self-belief that they will be able to meet goals from their current understandings, or will be able to learn what is needed to meet the goals
• promote the cultural identity of learners as being fundamental to learning relations and interactions \
• engage in classroom observations and provide il,'pecific feedback and! or co-construct with teachers ways to improve classroom practice
• provide specific professional learning opportunities for the consolidation of content and strategy learning
• create and sustain effective school-wide professional learning communities
• build capacity for teachers to take collective responsibility for student outcomes and collective action for changing teaching practice based on student experiences and academic performance
• ensure collective action for changing teaching practice is based on student experiences and academic I-'~' 'v, "y"v~
• create opportunities for connections to, and collaboration with, other teachers (including teachers in other schools) engaged in similar reform
• institutionalise the means for teacher collaborative decision making in a systematic manner
• prioritise the establishment of new institutions so that they are seen to be supportive of the efforts of teachers and are aligned with school plans and poliCies, and which inform national pol icies
• modify structural and organisational arrangements to accommodate new institutions (such as the Cycle Plus components of Te Kotahitanga) and staffing (re)allocations
• (re)prioritise funding to support the ongoing implementation of the refor:n's professional learning processes beyond the initial project fundmg phase
• ensure the reform is symbolically represented within the school
• focus on improving the performance of those least well served by the system
• have a sound understanding of the theoretical foundations of the reform and of what that theoretical basis means for classroom practice, school structure and culture
• accept responsibi lity for student learning outcomes • demonstrate their understanding that:
a) a focus on Maori has strong benefits for other students b) pedagogic leadership has powerful effects on student outcomes c) no one person can provide all leadership needs d) proactive, responsive and distributed leadership is essential for the
sustainability of a reform in a school
no
GPILSED Tasks associated with each GPILSED element -~
Leaders need to • spread the reform to others, within and outside the school, so as spread the reform to to align the new norms of the reform within the school and within include all students, the norms of supporting institutions, and within communities in teachers and the association with the school community. • spread the reform so that parents, whanau and community are
engaged in a manner that addresses their aspirations for the education of their chi Idren
Leaders develop the • develop the capacity of teachers to identify and continually question capacity of people their own discursive positioning and theories of action and systems to • provide professional learning opportunities for teachers that use produce and use alternative theories, evidence and vicarious experiences evidence of student • develop and grow systems in their schools that accurately measure experiences and student attendance data, stand-downs, suspensions, early-leaving progress to inform exemptions, retention rates and achievement data for formative and change. summative purposes
• develop the capacity of teachers to learn how to both create appropriate evidence for learning and use student evidence to modify their classroom practice
Leaders ensure that • identify and take responsibility for the performance of students who the ownership of are currently not benefiting from their school/system and responsibility/ • take responsibility for ensuring that the integrity of the means of authority for the producing increased achievement gains for the target students goals of the reform (the Cycle Plus and the facilitation teams) is not jeopardised by must shift to the conflicting and competing interests and agendas school/system. • take responsibility for building capacity among students, staff and
other leaders so that they are able to take responsibility for student outcomes
• work towards building a school culture that focuses on an ongoing reduction of educational disparities through the raising of student learning and outcomes
• work to create classrooms, a school culture and an education system in which new situations are addressed from an in-depth understanding of the reform's aims and approaches rather than from past practice.
Conclusion On the one hand, leading school reform is difficult, basically because "[t]he complexity of
interacting contextual variables ... is enormous" (Lindahl, 2007, p. 328). On the other hand,
a great deal is known about the conditions that are necessary to support student learning,
and this is a good starting point. Among the keys to sustainable reform is leadership
that is cognisant of these conditions, and is willing to support the purpose of all school
routines, procedures and practices and to shape a school culture centred on reform.
The fundamental changes that are needed in classroom relationships and interactions
and in the culture of schools, through the institutionalisation of schools as professional
learning communities focused on improving student learning, depend on leaders
having a sound understanding of the theoretical underpinning of the reform while
simultaneously being responsive and proactive about supporting and promoting reform
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processes and goals. To this end, principals' leadership is essential. However, principals'
leadership to the exclusion of others is ineffective. Principals, therefore, in Kouzes and
Posner's (2002) terms, need to inspire a shared vision, model the way forward, enable
others to act and challenge the status quo.
Overall, a measure of the effectiveness of leadership will be seen in the actions and
beliefs of teachers. Ineffectively led schools foster and support teachers who are likely
"to attribute student achievement to global factors or student traits, such as experience
and knowledge, socioeconomic conditions, inexperience with the English language,
academic ability, lack of readiness and inadequate parental involvement" (McDougal
et aI., 2007, p. 74). Effectively led schools are characterised by teachers who attribut~
"student achievement toward specific, teacher-implemented, instructional actions and'
planning processes, and away from teacher and student traits, and non-instructional
explanations" (p. 74). In other words, effective leaders support and foster committed,
agentic educators.
In the next chapter we will focus on spreading the reform, and in particular, those
aspects of spread that affect students' immediate schooling experiences.
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