See my files

Themes & Learning Objectives • Students should develop a critical understanding of the ‘Latin World’, and

the role of the Catholic Church, the Spanish Empire, the Portuguese Empire, and the French Empire therein

• Students should develop a critical understanding of how the Spanish Empire conquered the cultural and political systems of the Americas

• Students should develop a critical understanding of how the Portuguese Empire initiated and controlled, sugar production, the Transatlantic Slave Trade and their role in Brazil

Themes & Learning Objectives ct. • Students should be able to distinguish the differences between the ‘Latin

World’ and the Protestant upstart powers like the Dutch Republic, England, and Scotland—and their rise to power and prominence

• Students should develop a critical understanding of the processes of the ‘Columbian Exchange’…including environmental consequences and cultural consequences for the peoples of Africa and the Americas

Key Questions to Consider • What does ‘Latin America’

actually mean? • What was the role of the

Catholic Church in the Age of Exploration and colonialism?

• How and why did England begin establishing

colonies in North America?

• What did Disney lie about in Pocahontas?

• What was the Transatlantic Slave Trade? Who were the perpetrators and victims?

• What do historians mean by the term ‘Columbian Exchange’?

• How was slavery in North America different than South America?

The Shifting of the

‘Latin’ World The Expansion of the Catholic Church and Catholic Empires from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic So what is the ‘Latin’ in ‘Latin America’? • The origins of the terms ‘Western’ and ‘Christendom’ • Religious fragmentation of Europe and the response of the Catholic Church • The Vatican and its Allies in the wider Geo-Political arena • The Role of the Church in the Conquest and Makeover of West Africa & the

Americas (review: Afonso I of Kongo) • …or in a more ‘anthropological’ sense, the dissemination of post-Roman

Mediterranean cultures, languages, practices, and institutions to the New World…namely, the Catholic Church

Spain: Birth of a World Power Forging an Empire • Marriage of Ferdinand & Isabella (1469)—unites the kingdoms of Aragon &

Castile • Spain agrees to sponsor Columbus’ controversial voyage west in search of

a route to the Far East • Spain would grow, not only in the Americas, but through the ascendancy of

Philip II as king…

Profile: Christopher Columbus • Cristóbal Colón: Genoese Navigator • Hero or Villain? • Obsessed with finding western passage to the Far East • Financed for 4 voyages (1492-1504)

First Voyage of Columbus • San Salvador: 12 October 1492 • Soon after ‘happened upon’ Hispaniola (present Haiti/Dominican Republic)

and Cuba • Returned to Europe with cinnamon, coconuts, a small bit of gold, and

several natives from the Caribbean to display • Made thorough reports and received funding for further voyages

Subsequent Voyages of Columbus • 2nd Voyage: brought 12,000 Spanish fighters in 17 ships • Returned to Europe with even more Taíno natives from Hispaniola as slaves • Later would chart much of the Caribbean and the contours of Mesoamerica

and South America • Died 1506 after much adversity in Spain…still thinking that he had been to

Asia • Regardless, the Spanish Empire now had bases & ports for further conquest

Spanish Conquest of the Americas • “Gold, Gospel, and Glory”—Spain’s young men (priests and soldiers) went

in search of intertwined, yet conflicting, goals • Cuba: In 1511, there were 3 million Taíno; by 1550 there were 0 • Puerto Rico: Conquered in 1508 • Throughout the Caribbean, the Spanish commenced European-style

agriculture and brought invasive species (plant/animal)—decimating local ecologies

Fall of the Aztecs • 1519: Hernando Cortes brings 530 soldiers to Tenochtitlan • Aided by horses, firearms, and SMALLPOX • Wiped out the population of Moctezuma II, and enslaved the remaining

Aztecs • The Aztec realm provides ideal base from which to launch conquests of the

Mayan peoples of the Yucatan, Honduras, and Guatemala

Fall of the Incas • 1538: Francisco Pizarro and only 168 men set forth • Crossed jungles and mountains through Panama and Ecuador to reach the

Incan capital of Cuzco • As with the Aztecs, the Spanish had a distinct advantage with their

firearms and smallpox • Allowed the Spanish Empire to expand throughout South America

Conquering the Northern Frontier • Florida: Ponce de Leon (1515; 1521) • Ponce de Leon (1526)—brief settlement in present-day South Carolina • Hernán de Soto led expeditions from Tampa through to Arkansas—found

no gold, but left plenty of diseases to wipe out the Mississippian mound builders

• Establishment of St. Augustine and the eviction of the French

Engaging the Southwest • Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, & California • 1540-42: Francisco Vasquez de Coronado (AZ/NM/CO) • 1598: Juan de Oňate—400 soldiers; 10 Franciscan friars across the Rio

Grande—encounters with the Pueblo peoples • Pueblo peoples established a Catholic “veneer” in exchange for protection

from the Apache people over a period of several decades

The Portuguese Empire • SUGAR • AFRICA • SLAVERY • BRAZIL • TRANSATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

The Rise of Portugal as a World Power • Vasco de Gama (1497)—Rounds the Cape of Africa • Portugal gains access to the Indian Ocean and access to Asian goods • Established trading hegemony from West Africa to Indonesia • At the time, perceived as much bigger accomplishments than Spain • By 1500, Portugal effectively usurped the gold trade from the kingdoms of

Africa • By 1513, had reached South China (the prize of all prizes in the minds of

Europeans at the time)

The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) • Pope brokers a deal between Portugal & Spain to prevent a turf war in the

New World • Established a North-South line demarcating where the Spanish and

Portuguese were allowed to respectively explore, exploit, and conquer • The North-South line ran from the top to the bottom of the known world • Spain was entitled anywhere 370 leagues west of the Azores; Portugal

anywhere east of the line

Profile: Sugar • Sugarcane: native to South and Southeast Asia • Up to the 16th century, cultivation in Europe limited to areas of the

Mediterranean region (Sicily & Cyprus) • Few Europeans had ever tasted sugar—limited (in small quantities) to the

elite • Cultivation and Production result of “Slav” labor—etymology of “slave”;

Slavs from the Balkans and Russia • Portugal’s access to the East also gave it access to more sugar

Slav Labor & The Fall of the Eastern Empire (1453) Sacking of Constantinople • 1453—after 1000 years of existence, the Eastern Roman Empire falls • Turkish forces overwhelm Constantinople • Consequences: disruption to sugar production; cuts off access to Slav labor • Portuguese maintain a number of Slavs as part of the experiment to

cultivate sugar elsewhere • Slavs were enslaved alongside West Africans during these experiments

Portugal & Sugar Production • With the void of Slav labor, the Portuguese turn to African labor as a

solution • Prince Henry the Navigator, son of King João I, had already settled the

Atlantic islands of Madeira (1418-19), the Canaries (1424), and the Azores (1427)

• In search of labor, Portuguese begin raiding West Africa for people to work in the Atlantic islands

• Found that sugarcane grew successfully in the islands

Sugar ct.

Sugar and the Establishment of the Plantation System of Production • Plantation system key component to the development of MERCANTILIST

economic development strategies

• Mercantilism: System of economic production by which raw materials are exploited in order to finance the state

• Experimental Phases: Sao Tomé (off Angola); Madeira; Canaries • Soon after, Brazil

Institutionalizing Slavery • Review: the Portuguese Plantation System • Over the course of four centuries, at least 10 million Africans imported to

the Americas—the vast majority to Brazil and the West Indies • Africans greatly outnumbered Europeans in the New World—hence the

authoritarian nature of plantation slavery • Until the 1700s, the North American continent was largely the ‘fringe’ of

the slave trade

Slavery ct. • Review: Sugar changed everything • Review: the complicity of West and North African leaders in the

construction of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and the dated history of the larger ancient African slave trade

• 1600s: Dutch supplant Portuguese monopoly over the slave trade • 1700s: British replace the Dutch as the main perpetrators of the slave

trade

Middle Passage: Voyage of Hell

Horrors of the Journey • Men & Women separated • Rape as a tool of violence and control • Suicides • Shackled in the lower decks of wooden ships for 4-8 weeks; no sanitation • 1/7 die each trip, with others suffering insanity upon arrival

Profile: Olaudah Equiano • The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano—an excellent PRIMARY SOURCE DOCUMENT • 1745-97 • Documented the horrors of the institution of slavery • Influenced the Abolitionist Movement and the Slave Trade Act of 1807 • Igbo (a people in modern Nigeria) • Kidnapped at age 11—West Africa to Barbados to Virginia

Legacy of Portugal • While the Spanish largely used Native Americans for slave labor, the access

to West Africa forged by the Portuguese allowed for their monopoly of the West African slave trade

• Establishment of the Plantation system of economic production; the

Portuguese drove off Native Americans and imported Africans • 1570: 6 million pounds of sugar per year exported to Europe and beyond • 1630: 32 million pounds of sugar per year exported to Europe and beyond

Effects of Spain & Portugal’s Rise on Geo-Political Economy • Establishment of Atlantic/Middle Passage • Radically shifted the economic base of Europe from being centered around

the Mediterranean to the triangulation of the Atlantic • This alters a power base that had for MILLENNIA been perceived as the

center of the world by African, European, and Southwest Asian kingdoms and empires

• Competition for control of raw materials leads to trade wars across Europe • Essentially creating a powder keg…soon to be lit by the fires of religious

schisms

French North America • Henry IV (1553-1610) facilitates the expeditions of Samuel de Champlain • Acadia (Nova Scotia)-1604; Quebec-1608 • 1609-1610 Champlain allies w/Algonquians in St. Lawrence region to

marginalize the Iroquois Confederation • Trade w/native peoples (FUR); more inter-marriage w/native peoples than

English counterparts (Les Coureurs des Bois ) • Role of the Jesuits in New France—agents of both Christianity and disease

(ex: Huron people)

French & Indian Relations Les Coureurs des Bois Jesuit Fr. Marquette

The ‘Protestant Wind’ Spreads the ‘Seeds of Albion’ The Rise of England as a World Power Sovereignty, Reformation, and Conquest • Unifying the kingdoms of: • -England • -Wales

• -Ireland • -Scotland • and others…under conflicting systems of rule & religion • …eventually develops into the ‘British Empire’, or the United Kingdom of

Great Britain & Northern Ireland

Profile: Henry VIII (Tudor) • (1491-1547) • King of England & Wales; Conqueror of Ireland • Separated England from the Latin World through the creation of the Church of England • Established the 1st truly modern, sovereign state • Six marriages: Executed 2 wives; 1 died in custody • Sired 2 future Queens: Mary Tudor (Catholic); Elizabeth I (Protestant)

Henry’s Church of England • Archbishop of Canterbury—Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556) • Pope would not grant Henry a divorce from the Holy Roman Emperor’s

niece • Henry had no theological inclinations towards Lutheranism or the

Reformation…he just wanted a divorce • Church of England becomes a laboratory for Lutheran & Calvinist theologies • Henry appoints himself head of the Church, confiscates/nationalizes all

Catholic Church property—essentially creating a ‘rogue state’ outside of Christendom

Profile: “Bloody” Mary Tudor (1516-58) • Henry’s daughter through Catherine of Aragon • Staunch Catholic seeking to bring the English back in line with Rome—executing many Protestants • Married to Philip II—making the leader of the Catholic Coalition the King of England & Wales; Ireland • Died heirless in 1558—leaving her Protestant half-sister, Elizabeth, in line for the throne

Profile: Elizabeth I (1533-1603) • Staunch Protestant and sought to reform the Church of England after Mary’s attempts to dismantle it • Constantly suspicious of her French 1st cousin, Mary Queen of Scots, just north of her border in Scotland • Excommunicated by the Pope—instructs the English people not to be obliged to her rule • Persecuted Catholics, Puritans, and Separatist-Christians • Provided covert aid to Protestant struggles in other parts of Northern Europe • Key Court figures: Sir Walter Raleigh; Sir Francis Drake; William Shakespeare; Sir John Dee • Never married; Left no heirs

Elizabeth vs. Spain • An immediate target of the Catholic Coalition, particularly after her

excommunication • Philip II organizes an Armada of 130 ships to attack England, but the

attack is dispersed by fierce windstorms (the “Protestant Wind”) • Elizabeth builds up the English navy and asserts herself in geo-politics and

attempts to establish English mercantilism • Begins to challenge Spain in the New World for turf

Colonization of Ireland—a test run for the New World • Elizabeth viewed Catholic Ireland as an ideal practice ground for

colonization during the 1560s-70s • Many of the officers involved in Ireland’s subjugation would go on to put

the same methods into practice in the New World • Created a system in Ireland that would be a template, and persisted in

Ireland for centuries

England’s Early Ventures in the New World • 1497: John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto) sailed to Newfoundland—first

successful attempt since the Vikings; also ‘happened upon’ Nova Scotia; discovered rich fisheries for salmon and cod

• By the late 1500s, England had a wool surplus and needed to seek out new markets

• Elizabeth I encouraged exploration, but left the details to the explorers—far less crown involvement than the Spanish model

Early Failures & Slow Starts • 1583: Attempt to settle Newfoundland fails • 1585-88: Roanoke Island (Outer Banks, NC); John White; Relief mission

(1591), the “Lost Colony”; “Croatoan” • 1604; 1609: Guiana • 1607: Maine • Struggles, but eventual successes: • 1607: Jamestown (VA) • 1612: Bermuda • *By far, most early missions and settlements took place in the West Indies

King James I/VI (1566- 1625) • King of Scotland—assumed throne of England upon death of Elizabeth I

(1603) • Commissioned first English translations of the Bible and Machiavelli’s ‘The

Prince’ • Succeeded in maintaining several culturally-fracturing realms (Scotland,

England, Ireland)

English Moral Issues in the New World • Justifying the seizure of land from Native peoples—particularly those of the

Mid-Atlantic region • Rationale: Native peoples did not ‘develop’ the land upon which they

subsisted; it was deemed ‘wasteland’, and was thus the moral duty of

settlers to seize and develop it with European agriculture

Profile: The Virginia Company of London • Chartered by King James (1606) • Sold stock to finance exploration • Seeking to expand trade with Natives • Seeking to find route to China • Seeking GOLD

The Virginia Colony: Jamestown • 1607: A shaky start (Malaria; Dysentery; Starvation) • 1607-1609: 900 settlers—60 survivors • No Profits for Virginia Company • 1610-1622: 9000 settlers—2000 survive

The Powhatan People • Part of the Chesapeake Confederacy • 24,000 living across a wide area • Different experience for the English than those of the Spanish with the

Aztecs/Incas

The Jesuit Settlement of Ajacán • 1570: St. Mary’s Mission—Chesapeake Bay = “Bahía de Madre de Dios” • Frs. Juan Bautista de Segura, Luis de Quirós et al • An earlier 1561 expedition saw the capture of a young native boy—taken to

Havana and Madrid; Jesuit educated and rechristened ‘Don Luis’ • Don Luis would later run away back to the Powhatan people…speculation

that perhaps Don Luis was the father of Wahunsunacock (aka: ‘Chief Powhatan’) and Opechancanough…or perhaps even Opechanaconough himself

• Nevertheless, ‘Don Luis’ returned to his people and helped to drive the Jesuits and the Spanish off the Virginia Peninsula in 1571

Early Relations Between English & Powhatan • Amicable Beginnings • Powhatan’s gesture during their first autumn—brought corn and helped the

colony survive • Severe drought sets in (7 years), and Powhatan must reserve his charity in

favor of keeping his own people alive • John Smith repeatedly raids the Powhatan people for food • Chief Powhatan ends trade with the settlers

Profile: Tobacco The Rise of Tobacco: Profits & Consequences • Sir Francis Drake (1586)—first boatload back to England from the West

Indies • “Sot Weed”; “Stinking Weed”; “Jovial Weed” • Absolutely despised by King James • John Rolfe’s discovery about Chesapeake soil • The salvation of Jamestown • The curse of Jamestown—tobacco depletes soil; requires high

maintenance…and a need for labor

Profits & Consequences of Tobacco ct. • The depletion of land = the need for more land • More encroachments upon Powhatan territory—inevitable war • The use of indentured servants—men and women

Indentured Servitude in Virginia • Vast Majority—poor English people • Willing to trade years of free labor for passage to the New World • Most 17th century immigrants were indentured servants going to Virginia

or Maryland • Average age: 15-24 • Women made to work in the fields—subject to sexual abuse • Illegitimate Pregnancies led to owners selling the women’s children into

servitude

Indian Wars in Virginia • A tentative peace was forged between the Virginians and the Powhatan • Marriage of John Rolfe to Pocahontas (daughter of Chief Powhatan) • Powhatan’s death in 1617 • Rise of Opechancanough—calls for war • Virginians murder popular war chief/medicine man (1622) • Powhatan people respond by obliterating Jamestown—killed 25%;

destroyed infrastructure

Pocahontas: Before & After Consequences of Jamestown’s Defeat • Bankruptcy of the Virginia Company of London • King James annuls the charter of the Virginia Company in 1624 • Establishes Virginia as a ‘Crown Colony’ • Establishment of the House of Burgesses as the structure of local-royal

governance • Led to the sheer hatred of Native peoples by the Virginia colonists • Annual expeditions to purge the territory of Native peoples • More soil depleted by tobacco = need for more and more land

Charles I (1600-49) • Son of James I • Veneer of Catholicism • Catholic wife (Henrietta Maria) • High Anglican Church (Arminian) • Eventually executed by Oliver Cromwell—who implemented a dictatorship

in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland

Founding of Maryland • George Calvert “Lord Baltimore”—aristocrat; close ties to Charles I • 1632: Granted 10 million acres, “Terra Maria”—a “proprietary colony”

(indirect rule) • Opened as a safe haven for Catholics, but open to Protestants as

well…whom quickly out-populated Catholic aristocrats • Relatively peaceful relations with Native peoples • Tensions: Catholic aristocracy implements high taxes on Protestants

Structures & Society in the Chesapeake Region • Lack of proportional populations (men/women) • High Mortality • Pregnant women especially vulnerable • Lack of family structures (ex: grandparents) • Widow Culture • Slow development of churches and schools • Terrible housing; lack of material goods • Lack of political and cultural leaders = lack of societal cohesion

Bacon’s Rebellion--background • 1675-76 • Civil Unrest between aristocrats and subaltern classes • Constant skirmishes with Native peoples • Virginians despise Royal Governor, William Berkeley • Berkeley’s Indian policies were held with particular contempt • Berkeley’s trade monopoly with Indians—gave Natives sovereignty over

lands beyond white settlements • Enraged indentured servants with an eye towards their own futures, as well

as subaltern settlers • Price of tobacco falls with more in circulation • High taxes from Berkeley and the Crown

Bacon’s Rebellion ct. • Skirmish between Virginians and a local tribe led disgruntled settlers to

make war on the Susquehannock people—who had played no role • Virginians massacre Susquehannocks and were condemned by Berkeley • Susquehannocks seek revenge; kill 36 Virginians • Nathaniel Bacon leads an army of slaves, indentured servants, and

subaltern planters on a crusade against any and all native peoples they encountered

Bacon’s Rebellion ct. • Berkeley responds by organizing an army of 300 militiamen to engage

Bacon’s forces • Bacon sacks Jamestown—burns it to the ground—and forces Berkeley back

across the Chesapeake Bay • Berkeley faced an angry backlash of commoners in support of Bacon—and

demanding policy reforms • 1676: Berkeley capitulates and agrees to compromise with commoners;

legalizes the enslavement of Natives • Berkeley sends for 1100 royal troops from England, but Bacon died from

illness in 1677…most fled to NC, but 32 hanged for treason • Aristocracy reverses all 1676 reforms: ‘Virginia Gentry’

Labor in the Chesapeake Colonies • Native peoples were originally thought to be the prime source of labor

(disease, war) • Indentured Servitude dominated the labor force throughout most of the

17th century • While 30,000 African slaves worked in Barbados, only 3000 were in Virginia

(different ratio) • First slaves and servants were ‘freed’ subsequent to their service

agreement of indentured servitude (usually 7 years)

Rise of African Slavery in the Chesapeake Colonies • Several factors led to a profound increase in the utilization of African slaves

in the Chesapeake colonies: • -Rise of England in a geo-political and economic sense • -England’s engagement in the slave trade leads to falling prices of slaves • -Supply of indentured servants diminishes (gone by 1730) • -Bacon’s Rebellion (sought a more ‘malleable’ workforce)

The Story of Anthony Johnson • Angola; Sold by the Dutch as an indentured servant in Jamestown • Tobacco laborer; Freed in the 1640s • Married ‘Mary’ • Northampton County—250 acres • Owned slaves (John Casor case) • Son married a white English woman • Johnson’s disputed will

Tightening the Activities of Free Blacks as Slavery Institutionalizes • While the first Africans in Virginia were ‘indentured servants’ and could

earn their freedom, laws and customs changed with an increase on the reliance of African slave labor

• Process of DEHUMANIZATION (no right to bear arms; no political activity; no economic activity; limited social activity)— COMMODIFICATION/PROPERTY

• “Black Codes”; “Slave Codes” • Tri-Racial Delaware as a refuge

Profile: Puritanism • Largely, but not exclusively, Calvinists from England • Separatists & Anglicans—with conflicting visions • Previous refuge in the Netherlands for Separatist Puritans (1608-1620)—

driven out of England by James I

Dutch North America • All too often forgotten that the Dutch invented the structures of global

capitalism (as well as International Law) during their brief global hegemony

• New Netherland—mouth of the Hudson (1624)—Dutch West India Company

• Bases of further expansion: Fort Orange (Albany); New Amsterdam (NYC)—to the Hudson, Connecticut, and Delaware river valleys

• Peaceful relations with the Iroquois Confederation—no mass influx of Dutch people; more interested in fur trade than land-seizing

• Constant harassment of Chesapeake’s London and West Indies-bound cargo

England vs. Netherlands • 1652-1675: international fight over supremacy in relation to the new

‘global’ economy • By 1675, England force the Dutch state out of North America • Many Dutch settlers and French Huguenots remain in the St.

Lawrence/Hudson region—building Calvinist institutions and culture • Eventually English settlers intermarry with these social forces • England forges an alliance with the Iroquois Confederation

The ‘Columbian Exchange’ Process of Integrating, or Triangulating, the Americas, Africa, and Europe…for better or for worse…and lack of a better all-encompassing term for the process!

Key Areas of Triangulation • ECOLOGICAL • CULTURAL • ECONOMIC • GEO-POLITICAL • …and bear in mind this was a largely unconscious process—in terms of the

big picture of the so-called ‘Columbian Exchange’

Ecological Devastation • WEEDS—snuck in with bags of seeds and fruit • Livestock: The impact of pigs, goats, and sheep on local landscapes • Livestock = blood and air borne pathogens • Rabbits & Rats

Cultural Impacts: the Human Costs • DISEASE—Smallpox; 2/3 of Native American population of the Americas

wiped out by disease, abuse, and/or conquest • Mass Population Movements of Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans • Slavery and dehumanization of specific peoples

Geo-Political &Economic Impacts of Empire-Building in the New World • Review: Shifted the power center of the world from the Mediterranean to

the Atlantic—after millennia of being the center of the world • The “Price Revolution”—increase of gold and silver supplies = increase of

the money supply for Europeans; prices increase greatly, as do profits • For European peasants, however, there was no pay rise to keep up with

the inflation • Nevertheless, the increase of the money supply and inflation helped

develop the new merchant class • Colonial Expansion = Commercial Expansion • For native peoples of the Americas, a dramatic shift in power bases

occurred—the Sioux began their rise to dominance with Spanish horses and firearms

The “Columbian Exchange” • EASTBOUND: Pumpkins, Pineapples, Squash, Peanuts, Beans, Tomatoes,

Potatoes, Guinea Pigs, Turkeys, Maize/Corn • *Both Maize and the Potato transformed the European population • WESTBOUND: Human Beings (Africans & Europeans), Diseases, Livestock,

Rats, Rabbits, and Weeds

Conclusions • Students should understand the roles of Spain and Portugal in the shifting

of the Latin world from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic • Students should understand the role of Spain in the conquest of the

Americas • Students should understand the role of Portugal and complicit African

leaders in the institutionalization of Trans-Atlantic Slavery

Conclusions ct.

• Students should understand some of the key ideas, individuals, and movements taking place in Europe during the 1500s-1600s

• Students should be able to identify key individuals and moments in the rise of England as a world power Students should be able to develop a critical

understanding of the geo-political, economic, cultural, and ecological impacts of Atlantic triangulation