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Key Questions to Consider • What were the Americas, Africa, and Europe like before their worlds

converged? • What were the cultural, economic, and political systems like in the

Americas, Africa, and Europe? • What were the cultural, economic, and political factors in Europe that led to

the rise of Empires, the Age of Exploration, the Transatlantic Slave Trade, and the Conquest of the Americas?

Three Worlds on the Verge of Collision • The AMERICAS (North America, South America, and Mesoamerica) • AFRICA (West Africa; North Africa; Southern & Central Africa) • EUROPE (Western Europe; the Catholic Church; Calvinists; Lutherans;

Anglicans; England & Wales; Scotland; Ireland; France; the Holy Roman Empire; the Spanish Empire; the Dutch Republic; the Portuguese Empire)

The Americas …before Columbus

Pre-Columbian Peoples • DIVERSITY (Nomadic Hunter-Gatherers; Pueblos; Empires) • Theories of Origin • AGRICULTURE • Development of Complex Societies • Regional Differences of Particular People Groups

Origins of First Nations? • Academic discourse characterized by centuries of confusion, conflicting

accounts, and still confounded by mystery • “Ice Bridge” between modern Russia & Alaska? • Fusion of Asians & Ice-Age proto-Europeans? • Pacific Islanders? Ancient Japanese in Peru? • Regardless of origins, people groups have been inhabiting the Americas for

thousands of years

Agricultural Development • Scientists and Paleo-Anthropologists speculate on the beginning of

agriculture in the Americas • The impact of the development of agriculture was profound—particularly in

Mesoamerica, South America, and southwest North America • Empowerment of religious figures as the intermediaries between

Nature/gods and humans—in relation to agricultural sustenance

Maize (Corn) • More Food = More People • More People = More Organization • Ultimately: faster socio-economic, political and cultural development

Mesoamerican Civilizations The Aztec Empire • Preceded by the Olmec and Toltec civilizations • Stood at height of power when the Spanish arrived in the 16th century • Capital: TENOCHTITLAN (pop. 150,000)—situated on an island in Lake Texcoco

(Modern Mexico) • Floating gardens (chinampas) • Complex socio-economic class system (Nobles; Free Commoners; Serfs; Slaves)

The Incan Empire • Much of modern-eastern South America • Largest existing empire in the Americas—even had a postal service • KINGDOM of CUZCO • Smallpox & Civil War (“War of the Two Brothers”)—between Huayna

Capac's sons Huáscar and Atahualpa • Divided & Diseased—ripe for Spanish conquest

Southwestern Groups • Modern-day ‘Southwest’ of the United States and northern Mexico • Hohokam, Anasazi (Ancestors of the modern Hopi & Zuni) “Pueblo Peoples” • Village organization of politics, culture, and economic production • Multi-storied buildings; Terraces • Ceramic & Textile Production • Irrigation Techniques (Corn; Beans)

Pacific Northwestern Groups • Ex: Tlingit, Kwakiutl, Salish, Haida • Fishing Villages (Salmon; Shellfish) • Like the Southwestern peoples, the Pacific Northwestern groups were also

organized quite democratically with socio-political, cultural and economic concerns organized at the village level

Peoples of the Arctic • Inuit peoples; Alaskan peoples • Fishing/Whaling; semi-fixed cultures • Relation to the aforementioned Origins theories of the populating of North America • Similar culture to the Sami Peoples of Northern Europe

Mississippian Mound-Builders • The MOUND BUILDERS of the Mississippi and Ohio valleys (ancestors of the Creek,

Choctaw, and Natchez peoples) • Cahokia (near modern St. Louis), population of 40,000 • The mystery of the rapid decline of the Mound Builders over a short period of

time—possible swine flu from Spanish boats • Possibly Aztec-satellites (colonies or offshoots); Semi-Fixed Systems and Trade

Mound Bottom: Cheatham County, TN

Regional American Cultures: 4 Major Language Groups • Algonquian • Iroquoian • Muskhogean • Siouan • *These four language groups stretched from the Great Plains, across the

mid-west, to the Tidewater area of the Mid-Atlantic, and up into the Northeast

The Iroquois Confederation • Consisted of Four Cultural Groups: MOHAWK; ONEIDA; ONONDAGA;

CAYUGA; SENECAS • Thriving when the Europeans arrived (unlike the Mississippian peoples) • Solid, vast regional network and organization • Organization allowed the Iroquois Confederation to collectively respond,

rapidly adapt, and form common policies in relation to encroaching Europeans

Inevitable Differences with Europeans • Juxtaposed WORLD VIEWS—or contradictory conceptions of the world (Language, Habitus, Religion,

Organization of Production, and Socio-Political practices) • Europeans viewed Native Americans as “savage” in relation to the European concept of civilization;

Viewed Native Americans as “heathen” in relation to their lack of Christianity • Different concepts of “property”, “personal identity”, and the relationship between humans and nature

(i.e. dealing with resources) • While the Natchez and Aztecs had similar structures as Europeans, most peoples of the Americas did

not • MATRILINEAL SOCIETIES (Europeans were not comfortable negotiating with female leaders)

Africa …before the Portuguese

Ghana • 5th-11th centuries • Arrival of Islam in 10th century • Wealth built on TRADE • Territory of 100,000 sq. mi. • Capital: Kumbi-Saleh • 2/3 of the gold traded in Europe during the Middle Ages came from Ghana • Multicultural mix of Islam (particularly in the business centers/cities) and

traditional West African religion • Destroyed by North African warlords during the 11th century

Kumbi-Saleh Mali • Islamic kingdom of the Manlike/Mandingo people that rose from the ashes of Ghana • Harnessed agriculture, salt trade, and gold trade—the void left by Ghana • MANSA MUSA—great Muslim leader of Mali (1307)—known for 3500 mile pilgrimage to

Mecca • Returned from Mecca with Arabian intellectuals and artisans • Capital: TIMBUKTU • Home to a rich university • Largely declined following the death of Mansa Musa (1332)

Songhai • Seceded from Mali in 1435 • Would eventually grow to take the place of Mali in regional political economy • Situated on the Middle Niger River • Peaked under Sonni Ali (1464-92); Muhammad Ture (1493-1528) • Weakened with resistance from Muslim tribes which rejected monarchs; Morocco coveted

Songhai’s control over the salt and gold trades • Moroccan forces were armed with guns from the Middle East and conquered Gao &

Timbuktu in 1591 • A FRAGMENTED AFRICAN LANDSCAPE ALLOWED FOR EASIER EUROPEAN EXPLOITATION

Kongo • Kongo: an African empire of millions • ‘Happened upon’ by Portuguese explorer, Diego Cao • Capital: Mbanza • MANI-KONGO’s son, the Crown-Prince, was baptized by Portuguese Catholic

missionaries and named AFONSO I • Afonso I, in partnership with the Portuguese, effectively initiated the modern slave

trade

Stone of Ielala (Diego Cao)-- Congo

Benin City • Emerged as a powerful society around 1000C.E. • Elaborate walled-city with wide roads • Long involved with African slave trade • Became a chief port of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade with the English and

Portuguese as partners

Africa in the Ancient World • Africa was never thought about as a ‘whole’ by Africans or anyone else—i.e. there was no

‘African’ identity • East Africa: the mother of humanity • Africa had long been in contact with European, Middle Eastern, and Asian civilizations

(Egypt; Nubia; Axum; Kush) • Africa had long been at the forefront of science, technological developments (Nok/Iron

Production 450B.C.E.), Astronomy (Dogon; Egypt) • Africa had long been home to World Religions (Christianity/Islam/Judaism) • Development of extensive trade routes prior to European imperialism

Europe: the Independent Variable …before and during the conquest of the world

Europe at War Within • CULTURAL REVOLUTIONS • POLITICAL STRUGGLES • ECONOMIC/TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS • *RENAISSANCE ; REFORMATION; COUNTER-REFORMATION*

Mediaeval Feudalism • Catholic Church • Aristocrats/Monarchs: based on ‘divine’ legitimacy • Peasants: subjugated class—backbone of agricultural production • Growing Merchant Class: grew from the Crusades onwards

Cultural Revolutions • Jean Wycliffe • MARTIN LUTHER (Lutheranism) • JEAN CALVIN (Calvinism) • SEPARATISTS (Radical Reformers; Christian Anarchy) • COUNTER-REFORMATION (Jesuits; Inquisition)

Europe: a Continental Site of Violence • Catholic Coalition (Philip II)—Catholic Realms of Europe • France • United Provinces • Hanseatic League • England; Scotland; Ireland • -THIRTY YEAR’S WAR • -WARS OF BRITAIN & IRELAND

Political-Economic Outcomes of the wars of the 16th-17th

centuries • Emergence of the ‘modern state’—Peace of Westphalia (1648)—Principle of SOVEREIGNTY • Emergence of state-led ‘MERCANTILISM’ as the precursor to Imperialism • Global Expansion of Competing European Cultural, Economic, and State forces • Surplus of Resources from mercantilism + Philosophical development of liberal ideology would

eventually lead to the emergence of capitalism (Weber’s Protestant Ethnic narrative). • Collision Course—Africa, the Americas, and the triangulation of Atlantic Power for aggressive European

states

The Fracturing of ‘Western Christendom’ • Etymology of the term “The West”; Latin Christendom • Influences of the Renaissance on Western culture • Torn asunder by religious schisms growing from the Reformation, Radical Reformation, and

Counter-Reformation • Key Players: Papal States (Vatican); Holy Roman Empire (Charles V); Spain et al

(Hapsburgs/Philip II); France (House of Valois; House of Bourbon); England & Wales (House of Tudor; House of Stuart); Northern Europe (United Provinces; Sweden; Denmark; Hanseatic League/Teutonic Knights)

Western Development • The role of the Catholic Church—Rome, the Dark Ages, the title of ‘Emperor’

(Charlemagne-9th century), Warlords/destabilization—Peace & Truce of God (10th century)

• Development of FEUDALISM as a socio-political and economic system for Christendom

• The First Crusade (1096-99)—Pope Urban II • Subsequent Crusades through the 13th century

Crusades to ‘Renaissance’ • The Crusades exposed the West to the lost texts of the Ancient World (ex: Aristotle, etc.) and to the

new sciences and technologies of the Muslim world • Sparked a cultural revival and an era of humanism and decadence in medieval society (ex: Thomas

Aquinas and Scholasticism) • Logistical needs for the Crusades and establishment of eastern trade slowly generated an emergent

middle class in the West • Further intertwining of the Catholic Church and the aristocracies of Europe—an era of decadence and

lavishness • Venice and Genoa as the key ports of trade and ideas • INVENTION OF THE PRINTING PRESS (1450s)—Gutenberg Bible allows for freer interpretation and

represents a threat to the Church’s monopoly on the Latin Vulgate

Martin Luther • German priest in the Holy Roman Empire • Angered by the practice of Indulgences in the Catholic Church • 95 Theses; 1517 • Disputes the need for Christians to make pilgrimages to ‘Holy Sites’, the relevance of the Latin Mass, or confession • “Justification by Faith” • Proceeded to translate the Latin Vulgate into German (standardizing the German language)

Jean Calvin • French theologian—made Geneva the site of his ‘Reformed’ theology experiment in socio-economic and political

organization

• Predestination—God’s ‘Elect’ (cf. St. Augustine) • Self-discipline; Frugality; Social Control • All humans are equal through “inherent depravity” • Cities, Communities, and Churches organized in intricate systems with ‘Checks & Balances’ • Untold influence on the Constitution of the United States; the development of International Relations Theory

Impacts of the Reformation in Mainland Europe • Thirty Years’ War—resolved in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia—

established SOVEREIGNTY of each territory’s ruler and, ultimately, the emergence of the modern state

• Development of Christian business ethics and changes in economic practices

• Spurred the Catholic ‘Counter-Reformation’ and initiated internal attempts at reform

• Created new social forces instrumental in European expansion throughout the world

• Influenced the structure, individual character and nature of new, emergent states

Seeds of Lutheranism, Calvinism…and Separatism • Lutheranism: the construction of state churches in Northern Europe

(Sweden; Denmark; German states & principalities) • Calvinism: Presbyterianism and Presbyterian polities (Switzerland-Geneva;

France-Huguenots; Scotland-John Knox; England-Puritans; Netherlands-Dutch colonies)

• Separatists: (German territories-Anabaptists, Amish, and Hutterites; England-Quakers/Levelers/Baptists)

• *Each group and subgroup would quickly become ‘globalized’ with the advent of European expansion and/or their own respective plights in search of refuge

Conclusions • Students should have a critical understanding of the Americas, Africa, and

Europe in a cultural, economic, and political context prior to the Age of Exploration

Students should have a critical understanding of the cultural, economic, and political factors that led to the preconditions for Europe to fragment and spread their cultural, economic, and political systems to Africa and the Americas