conservation of plant genetic resources.

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20.4.2016

S. Mohan Jain Department of Agric. Sciences, University of Helsinki, PL-27, Helsinki Finland

Conservation and utilization of genetic resources: policy, treaties, international organizations and activities-1

l Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru, the great former prime minister of India, remarked in late 50s that “Everything else can wait but not agriculture”

l This remark remain relevant today

There is no short-term magic formula to solve the world’s food problems

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Major global problems facing sustainable agriculture

• Human population growth • Industrialization • Water shortages • No further scope of expansion of arable land • Deforestation • Environment • Poor infrastructure • Loss of bio-diversity • Improper facilities for the conservation and proper use of genetic resources

World Resources Institute, World Conservation Union, and United Nations Environment Program, "Global Biodiversity Strategy," 1992:

"Biodiversity is the totality of genes, species, and ecosystems in a region...

Biodiversity can be divided into three hierarchical categories -- genes, species, and ecosystems -- that describe quite different aspects of living systems and that scientists measure in different ways.

Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within species. This covers distinct populations of the same species (such as the thousands of traditional rice varieties in India) or genetic variation within a populations (high among Indian rhinos, and very low among cheetahs)...

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Genetic variation

Without genetic variation, some of the basic mechanisms of evolutionary change cannot operate.

There are three primary sources of genetic variation,

Mutations are changes in the DNA. A single mutation can have a large effect, but in many cases, evolutionary change is based on the accumulation of many mutations.

Gene flow is any movement of genes from one population to another and is an important source of genetic variation.

Sex can introduce new gene combinations into a population. This genetic shuffling is another important source of genetic variation.

Why Mutations occur

DNA fails to copy accurately

Most of the mutations that we think matter to evolution are "naturally- occurring." For example, when a cell divides, it makes a copy of its DNA — and sometimes the copy is not quite perfect. That small difference from the original DNA sequence is a mutation.

External influences can create mutations

Mutations are induced by physical and chemical mutagens. They cause the DNA to break down. Nevertheless, when the cell repairs the DNA, it might not do a perfect job of the repair. So the cell would end up with DNA slightly different than the original DNA and hence, a mutation

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Gene flow Gene flow — also called migration — is any movement of genes from one population to another. Gene flow includes lots of different kinds of events, such as pollen being blown to a new destination or people moving to new cities or countries.

If genes are carried to a population where those genes previously did not exist, gene flow can be a very important source of genetic variation. In the graphic below, the gene for brown coloration moves from one population to another.

Gene flow in beetle populations

1. Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a region. - Such diversity can be measured in many ways,. The number of species in a region -- its species "richness" -- is one often- used measure, - taxonomic diversity", also considers the relationship of

species to each other. For example, an island with two species of birds and one species of lizard has a greater taxonomic diversity than an island with three species of birds but no lizards. 2. Ecosystem diversity is harder to measure than species or genetic diversity because the "boundaries" of communities -- associations of species -- and ecosystems are elusive. - As long as a consistent set of criteria is used to define communities and ecosystems, their numbers and distribution can be measured...“

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This term was created by the Russian scientist Nikolai Vavilov and the U.S. scientist Jack Harlan. Vavilov published a study in 1926

It is an area that has a high degree of genetic variation for a particular species or genus of plants that can also be the center of origin for that species.

The two areas often, but not always, coincide; the degree of coincidence remains the subject of debate. In both areas, organisms have had the opportunity over many generations to evolve resistance, via mutation, to their pathogens.

Studies on the Origin of Cultivated Plants, describing ten such Centres of diversity

1 - China for lettuce, rhubarb, soybean, and turnip; 2 - India for cucumber, rice, mango, and Asian cotton; 2a - Indochina for banana, coconut, and rice; 3 - Central Asia (north India, Afghanistan, and Turkmenistan) for almond, apple, flax, and lentil; 4 - Near East for alfalfa, cabbage, and rye; 5 - Coastal and adjacent areas of the Mediterranean Sea for celery, chickpeas, and durum wheat; 6 - Ethiopia for coffee, grain sorghum, and pearl millet; 7 - Southern Mexico and Middle America for maize, lima

bean, papaya, and upland cotton; 8 - Northwestern South America (Bolivia, Ecuador, and

Peru) for potato, tomato, and Egyptian cotton; 8a - Isles of Chile for potato.

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The International treaty of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (ITPGRFA)

http://www.planttreaty.org/content/texts- treaty-official-versions

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Article 9: Farmers' Rights

Farmers' Rights are critical to ensuring the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and consequently for food security – today and in the future

The International Treaty recognizes the enormous contribution that the local and indigenous communities and farmers of all regions of the world, particularly those in the centers of origin and crop diversity, have made and will continue to make for the conservation and development of plant genetic resources which constitute the basis of food and agriculture production throughout the world.

It gives governments the responsibility for implementing Farmers' Rights, and lists measures that could be taken to protect, promote and realize these rights:

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The protection of traditional knowledge relevant to plant genetic resources for food and agriculture;

• The right to equitably participate in sharing benefits arising from the utilization of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture;

• The right to participate in making decisions, at the national level, on matters related to the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture;

• The right that farmers have to save, use, exchange and sell farm-saved seed/propagating material, subject to national law and as appropriate.

Aeticle 9: Farmer’s Rights

Plant Breeder’s Rights

The holder of the plant breeder’s rights respecting a plant variety has the exclusive right

(a) to produce and reproduce propagating material of the variety; (b) to condition propagating material of the variety for the purposes of propagating the variety; (c) to sell propagating material of the variety; (d) to export or import propagating material of the variety; (e) to make repeated use of propagating material of the variety to produce commercially another plant variety if the repetition is necessary for that purpose; (f) ornamental plant variety plants are normally marketed for purposes other than propagation, to use any such plants or parts of those plants as propagating material for the production of ornamental plants or cut flowers; (g) to stock propagating material of the variety for the purpose of doing any act described in any of paragraphs (a) to (f); and (h) to authorize, conditionally or unconditionally, the doing of any act described in any of paragraphs (a) to (g).

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The International treaty of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (ITPGRFA)

http://www.planttreaty.org/content/texts- treaty-official-versions

(ITPGRFA - Progress made from 2007-2014

It makes easier the exchange of seeds and other building blocks of the genetic diversity of the world’s food crops, stimulating research that is essential in the development of climate-smart agriculture, and, therefore, also to food security.

Most of the countries depend strongly upon crops originating elsewhere, the Treaty facilitates the exchange and conservation of crop genetic resources amongst member nations, as well as the fair sharing of benefits arising from their use.

The Treaty has made rapid progress made in its implementation between 2007 and 2014 in improving the uses of plant genetic resources along the seed value chain at a global level.

The Treaty has created a global genepool for food security under the direct control of all Contracting Parties with 1.6 million samples of genetic material that facilitate research for major important crops including maize, rice, wheat and cassava, among others.

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A) Multilateral System of Access and Benefit- sharing of the Treaty

1. Treaty Gene pool fully established

- Inclusion of 1.6 million samples of plant genetic resources, and growing

- Multilateral System successfully launched with 1.9 million accessions already transferred and reported

- More than 600 crop accessions transferred and reported every day within the System standard contract of the Treaty used worldwide to transfer plant genetic resources in the public and private sectors

- The Treaty’s Multilateral System is now referenced as a model for regulating other types of genetic material

2. Treaty Dispute Resolutions Mechanism established

- Dispute Resolution Procedures for the genepool of the Treaty successfully adopted

- As Third Party Beneficiary of the Treaty, FAO is the first UN agency to resolve disputes that may arise from transfers of plant genetic resources

- FAO and ITPGRFA are becoming a model for other UN Agencies to resolve genetic resource disputes, e.g. WHO for disputes over influenza virus-sharing

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3. Information Technology Infrastructure for the System established

- An information technology system, which stores more than 23,000 standard transfer contracts, reflecting the global gene- flows in the Multilateral System of the Treaty to 154 countries

- Global data store installed at United Nations Information and Computing Center (UNICC) with industry-standard trade secret protection

- System upgraded in 2014 with more than 500 users today and connections with other global and international systems

- Collaboration initiated with other organizations, such as CGIAR, CBD/UNEP and WIPO

B) Benefit-sharing under the International Treaty

• - For benefit of smallholder farmers who conserve and use plant genetic resources in developing countries that are Contracting Parties of the Treaty

• - Four benefit-sharing mechanisms: information exchange, technology transfer, capacity building, and monetary benefit-sharing through the Benefit-sharing Fund

•

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1. Establishment of the Treaty’s Benefit-sharing Fund

- The first global monetary benefit-sharing mechanism for genetic resources in the world, which is fully operational - In five years achieved more than 10-fold growth of the

Benefit- sharing Fund - All decisions on funding of projects are taken by the

Contracting Parties themselves - The Fund is the mechanism of the Multilateral System,

which implements commercial benefit-sharing for the genetic resources in the genepool

- Established under Article 19.3(f) of the International Treaty

2.Three rounds of benefit-sharing so far

• 2009-11: first 11 benefit-sharing projects for farmers successfully implemented and completed

• 2011: launched “Leading the Field” to keep farmers ahead of climate change

• 2012: Launch of the Second Call including Strategic Action Plans

• Impact: disbursed almost 9.6 million USD to directly help 50,000 farmers stay ahead of climate change in more than 45 countries through 39 projects since 2009

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3. Developing additional benefit- sharing mechanisms

• Developing additional non-monetary benefit-sharing mechanisms at request of Governing Body, such as information exchange and technology transfer

• Country-led initiatives to create additional benefit-sharing through innovative approaches

Why plant genetic resources? www.ipgri.cgiar.org

n Vital for the development of human society.

n Key to food security, providing us with cereals and other foods

n Their wise use can help eradicate poverty

n They also protect and enhance the environment, e.g. by preventing erosion and desertification and by absorbing atmospheric carbon.

n Genetic diversity provides species with the ability to adapt to changing stresses, such as pests and diseases or drought

n Conservation and utilization plant genetic diversity is vital to meeting the world's future development needs.

In Peru Andes, farmers grow up to 3,000 potato varieties, a farmer’s market

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Loss of bi-diversity/plant genetic resources

n Loss of bio-diversity could become a serious threat to sustainable crop production

n Conservation and use of bio-diversity are backbone of any crop improvement

n The protection of bio-diversity should be the top priority of the Federal Government

n Climate change could devastate crops

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Bilateral exchange agreement for germ plasm exchange

Quarantine of imported plant material

International germplasm exchange

Protection of germplasm from biopriates

Patent and germplasm ownership

Farmer’s right

Plant breeders' right

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Nordic germplasm

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Mandate

To act as nodal institute at national level for acquisition and management of indigenous and exotic plant genetic resources for food and agriculture To carry out related research and human resource development, for sustainable growth of agriculture.

Objectives of NBPGR

-To plan, organize, conduct and coordinate exploration and collection of indigenous and exotic plant genetic resources - To undertake introduction, exchange and quarantine of plant genetic resources - To characterize, evaluate, document and conserve crop genetic resources and promote their use, in collaboration with other national organizations. - To develop information network on plant genetic resources. - To conduct research, undertake teaching and training, develop guidelines and create public awareness on plant genetic resources.

Indian Vavilov Dr. Harbhajan Singh (1914-1974)

Neglected and underutilized crops

They are domesticated plant species that have been used for centuries for various purposes e.g. medicinal, food etc.

They have been reduced in importance over time owing to several factors: - supply and use constraints. - poor consumer awareness - modernization of agricultural

practices have made many of these crops neglected

- Their low esteem in use has led to genetic erosion of their gene pools

- As a result they are often regarded as lost crops.

- Lack of funding to use them for genetic improvement

- These crops must be conserved and utilized

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Neem tree patent

http://www.discoverneem.com/ neem-tree.html

Azadirachta Indica - The Neem Tree