How do films & TV shows influence our level of tolerance and respect towards cultural diversity and ethnicity? Analyze at least 5 TV shows and films
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qualitative_approaches_21.pptxQualitative approaches & Mass Com.
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Qualitative vs. Quantitative Approaches
quantitative research
(natural sciences such as biology, chemistry, physics, geology)
is more concerned with questions about: how much? how many? how often? to what extent?
investigating things which we could observe and measure in some way
observations and measurements can be made objectively and repeated by other researchers
qualitative research
(social sciences: psychology, sociology, anthropology)
is concerned with finding the answers to questions which begin with: why? how? in what way?
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A starting point in trying to understand the collection of information for research purposes is that there are broadly two approaches: quantitative research and qualitative research. Early forms of research originated in the natural sciences such as biology, chemistry, physics, geology etc. and was concerned with investigating things which we could observe and measure in some way. Such observations and measurements can be made objectively and repeated by other researchers. This process is referred to as “quantitative” research.
Much later, along came researchers working in the social sciences: psychology, sociology, anthropology etc. They were interested in studying human behaviour and the social world inhabited by human beings. They found increasing difficulty in trying to explain human behaviour in simply measurable terms.
Measurements tell us how often or how many people behave in a certain way but they do not adequately answer the question “why?”. Research which attempts to increase our understanding of why things are the way they are in our social world and why people act the ways they do is “qualitative” research.
Qualitative research
use descriptions of observations expressed in predominantly in no numerical terms
examines social life in its natural environment.
is concerned with developing explanations of social phenomena.
help us to understand the world in which we live and why things are the way they are
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Questions answered by Qualitative research
Why people behave the way they do
How opinions and attitudes are formed
How people are affected by the events that go on around them
How and why cultures have developed in the way they have
The differences between social groups
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Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers to questions which begin with: why? how? in what way?
Quantitative research, on the other hand, is more concerned with questions about: how much? how many? how often? to what extent?
Qualitative research is concerned with developing explanations of social phenomena. That is to say, it aims to help us to understand the world in which we live and why things are the way they are. It is concerned with the social aspects of our world and seeks to answer questions about:
Why people behave the way they do
How opinions and attitudes are formed
How people are affected by the events that go on around them
How and why cultures have developed in the way they have
The differences between social groups
Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers
Qualitative vs. quantitative
Qualitative Research
Subjective
Holistic
Phenomenological
Naturalist
Descriptive
Inductive
Quantitative Research
Objective
Reductionist
Scientific
Positivist
Experimental
Deductive
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A review of textbooks reveals a variety of terms used to describe the nature of qualitative and quantitative research. Some of the common terms are listed in Table 1.
Subjective
Holistic
Phenomenological
Anti positivist
Descriptive
Naturalistic
Inductive
Objective
Reductionism
Scientific
Positivist
Experimental
Contrived: fixed
Deductive
Characteristics
grounded in a philosophical position which is broadly interpretivist
sensitive to the social context
involve understanding of complexity, detail and context
A preference for unstructured data collection
A concern with the 'micro' features of social life
A concern with meaning and function of social action.
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Mason (1996). Qualitative Research is:
grounded in a philosophical position which is broadly interpretivist in a sense that is concerned with how the social world is interpreted, understood, experienced or produced.
based on methods of data generation which are flexible and sensitive to the social context in which data are produced.
based on methods of analysis and explanation building which involve understanding of complexity, detail and context.
Hammersley (1990) offers a definition of ethnography which shares properties in common with Bryman's definition of QR.
Use of everyday contexts rather than experimental conditions.
A range of sources of data collection (the main ones are observation and informal conversations).
A preference for unstructured data collection (no prior hypotheses, no prior definitions).
A concern with the 'micro' features of social life (a single setting or group).
A concern with meaning and function of social action.
The assumption that quantification plays a subordinate role.
Hammersley and Atkinson (1993)
A preference for 'natural' settings as the primary source of data.
A fidelity to the phenomena under study - this requires a cultural description of the meanings of phenomena to participants.
The use of and inductivist methodology which avoids the premature testing of hypotheses
Characteristics
time consuming
data is collected from smaller numbers of people than would usually be the case in quantitative approaches
Benefits include richness of data and deeper insight into the phenomena under study
raw qualitative data cannot be analysed statistically
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General Assumptions of naturalistic enquiry= qualitative
develop context-specific statements
about the multiple, constructed realities of all the key participants
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The positivist and naturalistic paradigms differ with respect to how reality is conceived and studied.
Naturalist researchers believe that social events are defined and shaped by the culture in which the events occur. Research itself is a social enterprise in which the researcher’s expectations influence what is inferred. Since culture influences everything that occurs within it, the goal of naturalistic enquiry is to develop context-specific statements ( as opposed to universal generalizations) about the multiple, constructed realities of all the key participants (including the researcher) involved in the process being investigated
Analyzing Qualitative Data
Process
Reduction
Explanation
FIRST ORDER EXPLANATIONS
SECOND-ORDER EXPLANATIONS
Theory
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The analysis of data that indicate the meanings (other than relative amounts) people have to something. Lindlof (1989) identifies four interrelated principles that should be kept in mind:
PEOCESS: Data analysis should be viewed as an ongoing process that occurs throughout the course of a study
Unlike quantitative researchers, naturalist researchers don’t collect all of their data and then make sense of them; they make sense of data as they are acquired, and acquire more data after making sense of earlier data
REDUCTION : the collected data must be reduced in some way. Its just not possible to present the large amount of data typically acquired from naturalist enquiry (e.g., observational notes, interview transcripts, and documents) so the data must be reduced to some manageable amount
EXPLANATION : the goal of the data analysis is to explain the meaning of the data, but there are at least two types of explanations; FIRST-ORDER EXPLANATIONS are research participants’ explanations of their own attitudes and behaviors and so forth
Whereas SECOND-ORDER EXPLANATION are explanations of participants' attitudes, behaviors and other things as seen through the researchers’ eyes.
SECOND-ORDER EXPLANATIONS attempt to explain the patterning of the first order data
THEORY : some naturalist researchers analyze data for the purpose of THEORY DEVELOPMENT. The extensive examination of a single case can certainly test how and where a theory
Investigative strategies in qualitative approach
two major investigate strategies are almost always used.;
direct observation of communication phenomena as they occur;
and in-depth interviews with cultural informants.
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Methods of collecting qualitative data
individual interviews: direct interaction with individuals on a
one to one basis or
focus groups
Observation
Historical analysis
Ethno-methodological research
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While naturalistic researchers employ many methods, two major investigate strategies are almost always used.; direct observation of communication phenomena as they occur;
and in-depth interviews with cultural informants.
Qualitative approaches to data collection usually involve direct interaction with individuals on a one to one basis or in a group setting. Data collection methods are time consuming and consequently data is collected from smaller numbers of people than would usually be the case in quantitative approaches such as the questionnaire survey. The benefits of using these approaches include richness of data and deeper insight into the phenomena under study. Unlike quantitative data, raw qualitative data cannot be analysed statistically. The data from qualitative studies often derives from face-to-face interviews, focus groups or observation and so tends to be time consuming to collect. Samples are usually smaller than with quantitative studies and are often locally based. Data analysis is also time consuming and consequently expensive.
Interviews
Highly Structured:
same questions/
same way/like questionnaire
Semi structured
Series of open-ended questions
Discuss some topics in more detail
Room for elaboration
In depth
Aim of discussing a limited no. of topics
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Interviews can be highly structured, semi structured or unstructured. Structured interviews consist of the interviewer asking each respondent the same questions in the same way. A tightly structured schedule of questions is used, very much like a questionnaire. The questions may even be phrased in such a way that a limited range of responses can be elicited. For example: "Do you think that health services in this area are excellent, good, average or poor? Bearing in mind the cost of conducting a series of one to one interviews, the researcher planning to use structured interviews should carefully consider the information could be more efficiently collected using questionnaires.
Semi structured interviews (sometimes referred to as focused interviews) involve a series of open ended questions based on the topic areas the researcher wants to cover. The open ended nature of the question defines the topic under investigation but provides opportunities for both interviewer and interviewee to discuss some topics in more detail. If the interviewee has difficulty answering a question or provides only a brief response, the interviewer can use cues or prompts to encourage the interviewee to consider the question further. In a semi structured interview the interviewer also has the freedom to probe the interviewee to elaborate on the original response or to follow a line of inquiry introduced by the interviewee.
Unstructured interviews :"depth" or "in depth" interviews have very little structure at all. The interviewer goes into the interview with the aim of discussing a limited number of topics, sometimes as few as one or two, and frames the questions on the basis of the interviewee's previous response. Although only one or two topics are discussed they are covered in great detail. Unstructured interviews are exactly what they sound like - interviews where the interviewer wants to find out about a specific topic but has no structure or preconceived plan or expectation as to how they will deal with the topic. The difference with semi structured interviews is that in a semi structured interview the interviewer has a set of broad questions to ask and may also have some prompts to help the interviewee but the interviewer has the time and space to respond to the interviewees responses.
Handling qualitative research data
Interviewers have a choice of whether to take notes of responses during the interview or to tape record the interview. The latter is preferable for a number of reasons. The interviewer can concentrate on listening and responding to the interviewee and is not distracted by trying to write down what has been said. The discussion flows because the interviewer does not have to write down the response to one question before moving on to the next. In note taking there is an increased risk of interviewer bias because the interviewer is likely to make notes of the comments which make immediate sense or are perceived as being directly relevant or particularly interesting. Tape recording ensures that the whole interview is captured and provides complete data for analysis so cues that were missed the first time can be recognised when listening to the recording. Lastly, interviewees may feel inhibited if the interviewer suddenly starts to scribble: they may wonder why what they have just said was of particular interest.
Interviewing
Naturalist in-depth interviews
Understand particular social phenomena
developing “intimate familiarity
“understand the other person’s “inner view”,
comprehending the essence of an individual, his or her emotions, motivations, and needs”
highly exploratory
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Naturalist in-depth interviews typically proceed inductively, using an unstructured format consisting of open questions
Researchers use interview to:
Understand particular social phenomena by
developing “intimate familiarity” and a “detailed, dense acquaintance-ship”.
They want to understand the other person’s “inner view”,
“comprehending the essence of an individual, his or her emotions, motivations, and needs”
An in-depth interview is highly exploratory – researchers learn gradually about participants and events, and modify the interview strategy as they proceed.
Whom to interview
Nonrandom sample
Purposive sample
Key informants
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Naturalist researchers rely almost exclusively on NONRANDON SAMPLES, meaning that the people interviewed do not have an equal chance of being selected from the pool of possible people.
Most select PURPOSIVE SAMPLE, intentionally choosing the people, on the basis of theoretical and /or experientially informed judgments, who are likely to be the most willing and able to shed light on what the researcher is studying.
Many researchers begin with and continue to rely on KEY INFORMANTS
Whom to interview
Nonrandom sample
Purposive sample
Key informants
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Naturalist researchers rely almost exclusively on NONRANDON SAMPLES, meaning that the people interviewed do not have an equal chance of being selected from the pool of possible people.
Most select PURPOSIVE SAMPLE, intentionally choosing the people, on the basis of theoretical and /or experientially informed judgments, who are likely to be the most willing and able to shed light on what the researcher is studying.
Many researchers begin with and continue to rely on KEY INFORMANTS
Key informants
“well-informed informants
“judge the reliability of potential interviewees
suggest people to talk with
make introductions
propose tactics for collecting information,
and react to collected data and tentative interpretations
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Many researchers begin with and continue to rely on KEY INFORMANTS, “well-informed informants” who can lighten a researcher on what and whom he or she should know .
Key informants can “judge the reliability of potential interviewees, suggest people to talk with, make introductions, propose tactics for collecting information, and react to collected data and tentative interpretations”
Focus group
6-10 people
Several focus groups for each project (min 3 groups)
Common characteristics
Specially convened
Use of info about feelings, perceptions & opinions
Researchers skills (facilitating, moderation, listening, observing and analysing)
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Focus group- question types
Engagement questions
Exploration questions
Exit questions
Observation
It is a technique that can be used when data collected through other means can be of limited value or is difficult to validate
Observation can also serve as a technique for verifying or nullifying information provided in face to face encounters
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Not all qualitative data collection approaches require direct interaction with people. It is a technique that can be used when data collected through other means can be of limited value or is difficult to validate. For example, in interviews participants may be asked about how they behave in certain situations but there is no guarantee that they actually do what they say they do. Observing them in those situations is more reliable: it is possible to see how they actually behave. Observation can also serve as a technique for verifying or nullifying information provided in face to face encounters. In some research observation of people is not required but observation of the environment. This can provide valuable background information about the environment where a research project is being undertaken. For example, an action research project involving an institution may be enhanced by some description of the physical features of the building. An ethnographic study of an ethnic population may need information about how people dress or about their non verbal communication. In a health needs assessment or in a locality survey observations can provide broad descriptions of the key features of the area. For example, whether the area is inner city, urban or rural; the geographical location; the size of the population. It can describe the key components of the area: the main industries; type of housing. The availability of services can be identified: number, type and location of health care facilities such as hospitals and health centres; leisure facilities; shopping centres.
Direct observation
What to observe
group of people
setting
communication act
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Naturalist researchers say you can observe a lot just by watching. ‘naturalist researchers go into the filed to watch people interacting as they ordinarily do while carrying out everyday activities.
What to observe: observation of communication usually focus on one of three interrelated aspects.
Sometimes the primary interest is the communication behavior of a particular group of people. (researchers were interested in the US high school adolescents (16-17) natural language descriptions when talking about the kinds of everyday events they experience. )
Some times the primary interest is understanding communication among people within a particular setting. (conducted research and voluntary work at .. A residential facility for people with AIDS. Their research focused on how communication practices help create and sustain community in the compelling setting)
Sometimes the primary interest is a particular communication act. (communication designed to embarrass another person and how the other person responds to it)
Role of the Observer
Complete participant
Participant observer
Observer participant
Complete observer
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Complete participant: is fully involved in a social setting and does not let people know they are being studied. The researcher is or pretend to be a normal member of that milieu and does not acknowledge being a researcher.
The complete participant role provides researchers with firsthand knowledge about a social context while minimizing researcher’s effects. , since the people don’t know they are being studied.
Cons: a number pf potential problems with this role:
It may not be possible to become a complete participant , ethical problem
2. Participant observer: become involved as fully as possible in a social situation where people know they are being studied. Similar to the complete-participant role, researchers experience the activities firsthand; however, they reveal their research agenda-usually at the start of the project, but sometimes as it progresses.
3. The observer –participant primarily observes and participate only to a limited extent.. The researcher attempt to fit into the social setting, perhaps by dressing similarly to the people being studied and recording notes unobtrusively, but does not participate actively in the activities.
4. The complete-observer: does not interact with the people being observed. The researcher is concerned with faithfully gathering observational data about people’s behavior without influencing them in any way.
Length of observation
amount of time spent observing in the field
one-time performance
few observational periods
Sustained observations
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Naturalist researchers must decide on the amount of time spent observing in the field . How much time is needed to collect the data necessary for understanding and being able to write about the communication phenomena of interest.
In some cases, when the phenomenon is a fleeting, one-time performance, only that single observational period is necessary. ((critical ethnography of the 25the anniversary of the assassination of President John Kennedy)
Some naturalist researchers can acquire sufficient data after only a few observational periods.
Most naturalist researchers prefer sustained observations, which means conducting longitudinal research.
Long term research is preferred because
it helps establish quality relationships between researchers and research participant.
It is seen as producing more valid and reliable information.
During longer observational periods people become less self-conscious about researchers' presence
and more likely to interact the way they usually do,
making the research less susceptible o the Hawthorne effect, and thereby,
maximizing the internal validity of the findings.
Observation
Written descriptions
video recording
Photographs
Documentation
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Techniques for collecting data through observation
Written descriptions. The researcher can record observations of people, a situation or an environment by making notes of what has been observed. The limitations of this are similar to those of trying to write down interview data as it occurs. First there is a risk that the researcher will miss out on observations because he is writing about the last thing he noticed. Secondly, the researcher may find his attention focusing on a particular event or feature because they appear particularly interesting or relevant and miss things which are equally or more important but their importance is not recognised or acknowledged at the time.
Video recording. This frees the observer from the task of making notes at the time and allows events to be reviewed time after time. One disadvantage of video recording is that the actors in the social world may be more conscious of the camera that they would be of a person and that their behaviour will be affected. They may even try to avoid being filmed. This problem can be lessened by having the camera placed in a fixed point rather than carried around. However, this means that only events in the line of the camera can be recorded limiting the range of possible observations.
Photographs and artefacts. Photographs are a good way of collecting observable data of phenomena which can be captured in a single shot or series of shots. For example, photographs of buildings, neighbourhoods, dress and appearance. Artefacts are objects which inform us about the phenomenon under study because of their significance to the phenomena. For example, memorabilia in historical research. Similarly, they may be instruments or tools used by members of a sub group whether this is a population sub group or a professional or patient group.
Documentation. A wide range of written materials can produce qualitative information. They can be particularly useful in trying to understand the philosophy of an organisation as may be required in action research and case studies. They can include policy documents, mission statements, annual reports, minutes or meetings, codes of conduct, etc. Notice boards can be a valuable source of data. Researchers who use this method of data collection sometimes develop a reputations as a “lurker” because of their tendency to lurk around notice boards! More information about observation can be found in the Trent Focus Resource Pack How to use observation in a research project.
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\\prime\staff\ana\AUS Mails Don't touchPhotographs and artefacts. Photographs are a good way of collecting observable data of phenomena which can be captured in a single shot or series of shots. For example, photographs of buildings, neighbourhoods, dress and appearance. Artefacts are objects which inform us about the phenomenon under study because of their significance to the phenomena. For example, memorabilia in historical research. Similarly, they may be instruments or tools used by members of a sub group whether this is a population sub group or a professional or patient group.
Documentation. A wide range of written materials can produce qualitative information. They can be particularly useful in trying to understand the philosophy of an organisation as may be required in action research and case studies. They can include policy documents, mission statements, annual reports, minutes or meetings, codes of conduct, etc. Notice boards can be a valuable source of data. Researchers who use this method of data collection sometimes develop a reputations as a “lurker” because of their tendency to lurk around notice boards! More information about observation can be found in the Trent Focus Resource Pack How to use observation in a research project.
What to observe
Stage (1) What is going on here?
Stage (2) Selectivity
Stage (3) Looking for instances that confirm or disconfirm their earlier perceptions and interpretations.
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The TAGE of a research project influences how observations are made. I the beginning, many investigators just observe impressionistically, looking for any clues that help them comprehend what is going on in the setting.
The general all purpose question that guides researchers' observation during this early period" is What is going on here?
As researchers spend more time in a setting, they become more selective of what to observe. And by the time they are ready to leave the setting, they may only be looking for instances that confirm or disconfirm their earlier perceptions and interpretations.
Lidlof (1995) poses six general questions that guide the choices among phenomena that communication researchers can observe.
How to decide what to observe
Who are the actors?
How is the scene set up?
How do initial interactions occur?
When and how do actors claim attention?
Where and when do principal actors ordinarily congregate and interact?
What communicative events are significant?
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Lidlof (1995) poses six general questions that guide the choices among phenomena that communication researchers can observe.
Who are the actors?
How is the scene set up?
How do initial interactions occur?
When and how do actors claim attention?
Where and when do principal actors ordinarily congregate (meet) and interact?
What communicative events are significant?
Recording observations
field notes
“record of what was meaningful…the goal is not to record everything, but to carefully note those critical moments when some meaning of the social action was revealed, however imperfectly, to the researcher.”
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Naturalist researchers keep track of their observations in the form of field notes, written or audio recorded records of what occurred. The
field notes
“record of what was meaningful…the goal is not to record everything –that simply create chaos – but to carefully notes those critical moments when some meaning of the social action was revealed, however imperfectly, to the researcher.”
Field notes are either taken while observing events or as soon as possible thereafter.
