Analysis Paper

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Stress

Chapter 5

Welcome to Chapter 5 of the slides that accompany the 3rd edition of Colquitt-LePine-Wesson. I’m Jason Colquitt, and I’ll use this Notes field to provide hints and background on each slide. These are variations of the slides I myself use to teach both undergraduates, traditional MBA’s, and executive MBA’s. If you have any questions or comments about these slides, please feel free to email me at [email protected].

Note that these slides will sometimes refer to the Instructor’s Manual, which I also write for the book. In particular, the slides will refer to the Try This! feature in the manual. That feature is designed to supply some helpful hints to spice up your lectures. Note that the Instructor’s Manual includes other helpful features as well, including OB on Screen hints, Asset Gallery tie-ins, Bonus Cases from prior editions of the book, and Businessweek Cases.

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Class Agenda

Stress defined
Types of stressors
What can you do?
What can organizations do?
How important is stress?
Best practices

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Here’s the integrative model that reminds students of where they are, where they’ve been, and where they’re going. Here I’d note that we’re still discussing concepts that directly impact Job Performance and Organizational Commitment.

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Why Are Some Employees
More Stressed than Others?

This slide is intentionally blurry.

Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides presents a “question of the day.” The question is a “why” question that the theories, models, and concepts discussed in the chapter will help to answer.

The blurriness of the slide will make sense when we return to it near the conclusion of the file. But the blurriness conveys that students already have some ideas about the question of the day. But those ideas lack the clarity of the answers that scientific research can provide.

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Stress

Definition
A psychological response to demands where there is something at stake and where coping with the demands taxes or exceeds a person’s capacity or resources
Do you want a stress-free job?

Most students will say that they don’t want a stress-free job...that they want some challenge in their work. Indeed, if we think back to Job Characteristics Theory from Chapter 4, many of the characteristics that create fulfilling work (Variety, Identity, Significance, Autonomy, Feedback) also bring with them a certain amount of stress.

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Stress

Which jobs are more and less stressful, in general?

Try This! For students who have not yet read the chapter and have not yet seen Table 5-1, ask them to guess what some of the least stressful jobs are, and what some of the most stressful jobs are. Write them in two different columns on the board. Then, as you go through the list of challenge and hindrance stressors later in the lecture, keep coming back to your list on the board. Do the least stressful jobs really have lower levels of challenge and hindrance stressors? Which stressors are lowest? Do the most stressful jobs really have higher levels of challenge and hindrance stressors? Which stressors are most salient?

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Stress

Which jobs are more and less stressful, in general?

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Transactional Theory of Stress

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Work Stressors

Challenge stressors
Time pressure
Work complexity
Work responsibility

For the students that said they don’t want a stress free job, many of them want these things. Here I make the point that Challenge Stressors cause growth and development. They make you a better employee, a better performer. So it’s an oversimplification to suggest that organizations should reduce the stress level of their workforce, because these types of stressors are beneficial.

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Work Stressors

Hindrance stressors
Role conflict
Role ambiguity
Role overload
Daily hassles

Unlike Challenge Stressors, dealing with Hindrance Stressors does not cause growth. They do not make someone a better employee. So organizations should indeed attempt to reduce these.

Try This! Ask students to think about their current job, or the job they will pursue as their career after graduation. Have them describe the role conflict inherent in that job. At a minimum, most jobs will have a built-in conflict between quality and quantity that the students can identify. However, sometimes there will be more unique examples, such as strictly adhering to rule following versus providing customers with a uniquely pleasing customer service experience.

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Work Stressors

OB on Screen: Devil Wears Prada
What kinds of stressors does Andy seem to be experiencing?

OB on Screen: The Devil Wears Prada. The clip referenced in the book begins around the 11:50 mark of the film, continuing until about the 18:00 mark. If you obtain the DVD of the film from either Netflix, Best Buy, or Amazon, it is Chapters 5-6 of that DVD (note that the film can typically be obtained through iTunes as well). The clip depicts Andy Sachs on the first day of her new job as “second assistant” to a fashion magazine editor. The scene provides very interesting and vivid examples of hindrance stressors, most notably, role ambiguity and role overload. One way to begin class discussion would be to have students identify the demands that Andy faces and explain how she probably appraises them. Another topic for class discussion is the role of Emily, the editor’s first assistant. Although she isn’t a source of stressful demands, she’s not very supportive either. Class discussion could then turn to means by which Andy could deal with the situation. Some students are likely to say, “just quit”, but there may be other students in class who recognize the instrumental value of stressful jobs, and will offer thoughts about how to manage the situation. Please email me ([email protected]) if you have any questions about using OB on Screen in your teaching.

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Family Stressors

Challenge stressors
Family time demands
Personal development
Positive life events

Here I ask students why we should be discussing family stressors, given that this class isn’t called “Family Behavior.” Of course, the answer is that employees are affected at work by what’s going on in their family life.

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Family Stressors

Hindrance stressors
Work-family conflict
Financial uncertainty
Negative life events

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Life Events

This table underscores the importance of understanding family stressors. The 7 most impactful life events are all in the family sphere.

Try This! Together with your students, create a “university life event scale” for your university, along the lines of Table 5-2. List events on the board, guessing at a stress score for each one. For example, a negative event might be getting a bad grade on an exam, or breaking up with a significant other. A positive event might be winning an important sporting event or planning for graduation. The specific numbers will be guesses of course, but the interesting part will be to make sure the numbers make comparative, relative sense (e.g., that the number associated with the exam make sense relative to the number associated with the breakup. You may also want to use Table 5-2 as a guide for the numbers, meaning that most events listed will be in the thirties or below.

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Coping with Stressors

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Accounting for Individuals

People differ in their ability to cope with stressors, as a function of:
Social support
Instrumental support
Emotional support
Type A Behavior Pattern

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Type A Behavior Pattern

For all the OB Assessments, instruct students to “reverse” the bolded items (3, 8, and 12 in this case). 1 becomes 7, 2 becomes 6, 3 becomes 5, 5 becomes 3, 6 becomes 2, and 7 becomes 1. After doing that reversing, they should perform the calculations in the formula. The average score for this index is shown in blue on the slide (53 in this case). Recognize that this is an admittedly arbitrary way of classifying “high” vs. “low”. I use a show of hands to see how many students fall above and below the average, and I then see if students will volunteer any extremely high or low scores.

OB Assessments: Type A. This assessment measures the extent to which students exhibit the “Type A” behavior pattern. When discussing the results with students, it is important to point out that while people who exhibit Type A behaviors tend to be more “stressed” than other people, other factors also come into play – the type of stressors people encounter, the amount of social support they have, etc. It might also be worth pointing out that this was originally developed as a tool by medical doctors to diagnose the predisposition for coronary problems.

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Consequences
of Stress

For each category, I ask the students whether they’ve experienced these forms of strain most typically. For example, many students will admit to getting sick, having stomachaches, feeling forgetful, or grinding their teeth.

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Why Are Some Employees
More Stressed than Others?

This is a repeat of the same intentionally blurry slide. It is repeated to illustrate the transition to the next slide.

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Why Are Some Employees
More Stressed than Others?

Family Challenge Stressors

Family Hindrance Stressors

Work Hindrance Stressors

Work Challenge Stressors

Coping Strategies

Type A Behavior Pattern

Social Support

Work Hindrance Stressors

Work Challenge Stressors

Family Challenge Stressors

Family Hindrance Stressors

Coping Strategies

Type A Behavior Pattern

Social Support

Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides will answer the “question of the day” in this fashion. It is often a bit unclear why some employees are more stressed than others. Fortunately, the topics discussed in this chapter provide some answers to that question. Some employees are more stressed than others because they experience more challenge and hindrance stressors in the work domain, or because they experience more challenge and hindrance stressors in the family domain, or because they are different in their coping strategies, Type A behavior, and social support. Note that these concepts don’t fully and completely answer the question. In scientific terms, they don’t explain 100% of the variation in stress. Thus the blurriness that remains. After all, employee attitudes and behaviors are a function of a great many things!

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Beginning with Chapter 4, the previous slide will always be followed up with the concluding and integrating figure of the chapter. It essentially provides an answer to the very same question.

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How Important is Stress?

Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides will also include this diagram that summarizes the importance of that chapter’s topic, relative to Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Over time, students will get a feel for which topics have a stronger or weaker relationships with Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. They also get a feel for when things are more related to one than the other, and vice versa.

This is the only chapter that has two of these diagrams, to showcase the distinction between challenge stressors and hindrance stressors.

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How Important is Stress?

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Application

Stress Management
Exercise
Managing hindrance stressors
Improving work-life balance
Improving hardiness

This exercise mirrors many of the components of stress management programs used in organizations. I usually have the groups talk through all three parts themselves, while asking for 1-2 students to volunteer to share their own learning points. So, for example, one student would share their strategies for confronting hindrance stressors, their takeaways regarding their life balance “pie pieces”, and their strategies for improving hardiness.

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Application

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Application

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Application

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Application

What can organizations do?
Assessment
Reducing stressors
Providing resources
Reducing strains

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Best Practices: Humana

Beginning with Chapter 4, each set of slides will end with a Best Practices slide spotlighting a company who leverages that chapter’s subject to improve Job Performance and Organizational Commitment. Rather than spotlighting the company that is the focus of the current edition’s wraparound case, I spotlight the company that is the subject of the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s Manual (taken from the previous edition of the textbook). That gives the instructor a chance to end on a note that “goes beyond the book.”

In this case that company is Humana.

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Best Practices: Humana

Fortune 100 company that administers health care benefits

“Freewheelin” program used by 28% of employees

10 minutes of bike riding per day can reduce depression

30 minutes of bike riding per day can reduce risk of heart disease and stroke

Would a different program appeal to a larger % of employees?

All of these bullets about Humana are described in the Bonus Case in the Instructor’s manual.

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INDIVIDUAL OUTCOMES

MECHANISMS INDIVIDUAL

INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS

GROUP MECHANISMS

ORGANIZATIONAL MECHANISMS

Organizational Culture

Organizational Structure

Teams: Processes &

Communication

Motivation

Trust, Justice, & Ethics

Teams: Characteristics &

Diversity Learning & Decision Making

Ability

Personality & Cultural Values

Stress

Leadership: Power &

Negotiation

Job Satisfaction

Leadership: Styles & Behaviors

Organizational Commitment

Job Performance

Stress

chapter Stress 5

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131C H A P T E R 5 Stress

experience stress are called stressors . The negative consequences that occur when demands tax or exceed a person’s capacity or resources are called strains . This definition of stress illustrates that it depends on both the nature of the demand and the person who confronts it. People differ in terms of how they perceive and evaluate stressors and the way they cope with them. As a result, different people may experience different levels of stress even when confronted with the exact same situation.

W H Y A R E S O M E E M P L O Y E E S M O R E “ S T R E S S E D ” T H A N O T H E R S ?

To fully understand what it means to feel “stressed,” it’s helpful to consider the transactional theory of stress . This theory explains how stressors are perceived and appraised, as well as how people respond to those perceptions and appraisals. 14 When people first encounter stressors, the

TABLE 5-1 Jobs Rated from Least Stressful (1) to Most Stressful (250)

LEAST STRESSFUL JOBS STRESS LEVEL

MOST STRESSFUL JOBS STRESS LEVEL

1. Musical instrument repairer 18.77 212. Registered nurse 62.14

2. Florist 18.80 220. Attorney 64.33

4. Actuary 20.18 223. Newspaper reporter 65.26

6. Appliance repairer 21.12 226. Architect 66.92

8. Librarian 21.40 228. Lumberjack 67.60

10. File clerk 21.71 229. Fisherman 69.82

11. Piano tuner 22.29 230. Stockbroker 71.65

12. Janitor 22.44 231. U.S. Congressperson 72.05

16. Vending machine repairer 23.47 233. Real estate agent 73.06

18. Barber 23.62 234. Advertising account exec 74.55

24. Mathematician 24.67 238. Public relations exec 78.52

29. Cashier 25.11 240. Air traffic controller 83.13

30. Dishwasher 25.32 241. Airline pilot 85.35

32. Pharmacist 25.87 243. Police officer 93.89

40. Biologist 26.94 244. Astronaut 99.34

44. Computer programmer 27.00 245. Surgeon 99.46

50. Astronomer 28.06 246. Taxi driver 100.49

56. Historian 28.41 248. Senior corporate exec 108.62

67. Bank teller 30.12 249. Firefighter 110.93

78. Accountant 31.13 250. U.S. President 176.55

Source: Adapted from L. Krantz, Jobs Rated Almanac, 6th ed. (Fort Lee, NJ: Barricade Books, Inc., 2002). The stress level score is calculated by summing points in 21 categories, including deadlines, competitiveness, environmental condi- tions, speed required, precision required, initiative required, physical demands, and hazards encountered.

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132 C H A P T E R 5 Stress

process of primary appraisal is triggered. 15 As shown in Figure 5-1 , primary appraisal occurs as people evaluate the significance and the meaning of the stressor they’re confronting. Here, people first consider whether a demand causes them to feel stressed, and if it does, they consider the implications of the stressor in terms of their personal goals and overall well-being.

As an example of a primary appraisal, consider the job of a cashier at a well-run conve- nience store. In this store, cashiers engage in routine sales transactions with customers. Cus- tomers walk in the store and select merchandise, and the cashiers on duty ring up the sale and collect the money. Under normal day-to-day circumstances at this store, well-trained cashiers would not likely feel that these transactions are overly taxing or exceed their capacity, so those cashiers would not likely appraise these job demands as stressful. Job demands that tend not to be appraised as stressful are called benign job demands .

However, consider how convenience store cashiers would react in a different store in which the cash register and credit card machine break down often and without warning. The cashiers who work at this store would likely view their job as being more stressful. This is because they would have to diagnose and fix problems with equipment while dealing with customers who are growing more and more impatient. Furthermore, the cashiers in this store might appraise the stressful situation as one that unnecessarily prevents them from achieving their goal of being viewed as an effective employee in the eyes of the customers and the store manager.

Finally, consider a third convenience store in which the cashiers’ workload is higher due to additional responsibilities that include receiving merchandise from vendors, taking physical inventory, and training new employees. In this store, the cashiers may appraise their jobs as stressful because of the higher workload and the need to balance different priorities. However, in contrast to the cashiers in the previous example, cashiers in this store might appraise these demands as providing an opportunity to learn and demonstrate the type of competence that often is rewarded with satisfying promotions and pay raises.

T Y P E S O F S T R E S S O R S In the previous two examples, the cashiers were confronted with demands that a primary appraisal would label as “stressful.” However, the specific demands in the two examples have an important difference. Having to deal with equipment breakdowns or unhappy customers is not likely to be perceived by most employees as having implications that are personally beneficial;

FIGURE 5-1 Transactional Theory of Stress

Hindrance Challenge

Work

Nonwork

Stressors

Role conflict Role ambiguity Role overload Daily hassles

• • • •

Work–family conflict Negative life events

•

Time pressure Work complexity Work responsibility

• • •

Family time demands Personal development Positive life events

•

STRESS

Primary Appraisal Is this stressful?

Secondary Appraisal How can I cope?

Financial uncertainty

•

5.2 What are the four main types of stressors?

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136 C H A P T E R 5 Stress

NONWORK HINDRANCE STRESSORS. Although the majority of people in the United States spend more time at the office than anywhere else, 33 there are a number of stressful demands outside of work that have implications for managing behavior in organizations. 34 In essence, stressors experienced outside of work may have effects that “spill over” to affect the employee at work. 35 One example of nonwork hindrance stressors is work–family conflict , a special form of role conflict in which the demands of a work role hinder the fulfillment of the demands of a family role (or vice versa). 36 We most often think of cases in which work demands hinder effec- tiveness in the family context, termed “work to family conflict.” For example, employees who have to deal with lots of hindrances at work may have trouble switching off their frustration after they get home, and as a consequence, they may become irritable and impatient with family and friends. However, work–family conflict can occur in the other direction as well. For example, “family to work conflict” would occur if a salesperson experiencing the stress of marital conflict comes to work harboring emotional pain and negative feelings, which makes it difficult to inter- act with customers effectively.

Nonwork hindrance stressors also come in the form of negative life events . 37 Research has revealed that a number of life events are perceived as quite stressful, particularly when they result in significant changes to a person’s life. 38 Table 5-2 provides a listing of some commonly experienced life events, along with a score that estimates how stressful each event is perceived to be. As the table reveals, many of the most stressful life events do not occur at work. Rather, they include family events such as the death of a spouse or close family member, a divorce or mari- tal separation, a jail term, or a personal illness. These events would be classified as hindrance stressors because they hinder the ability to achieve life goals and are associated with negative emotions.

TABLE 5-2 Stressful Life Events

LIFE EVENT STRESS SCORE

Death of a spouse 100 Trouble with in-laws 29

Divorce 73 Outstanding achievement 28

Marital separation 65 Begin or end school 26

Jail term 63 Change in living conditions 25

Death of close family member 63 Trouble with boss 23

Personal illness 53 Change in work hours 20

Marriage 50 Change in residence 20

Fired at work 47 Change in schools 20

Marital reconciliation 45 Change in social activities 18

Retirement 45 Change in sleeping habits 16

Pregnancy 40 Change in family get-togethers 15

Gain of new family member 39 Change in eating habits 15

Death of close friend 37 Vacations 13

Change in occupation 36 The holiday season 12

Child leaving home 29 Minor violations of the law 11

Source: Adapted from T.H. Holmes and R.H. Rahe, “The Social Re-Adjustment Rating Scale,” Journal of Psychosomatic Research 11 (1967), pp. 213–18.

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137C H A P T E R 5 Stress

A third type of nonwork hindrance stressor is financial uncertainty . This type of stressor refers to conditions that create uncertainties with regard to the loss of livelihood, savings, or the ability to pay expenses. This type of stressor is highly relevant during recessions or economic downturns. When people have concerns about losing their jobs, homes, and life savings because of economic factors that are beyond their control, it’s understandable why nearly half of the respondents to a recent survey indicated that stress was making it hard for them to do their jobs. 39

NONWORK CHALLENGE STRESSORS. Of course, the nonwork domain can be a source of challenge stressors as well. 40 Family time demands refer to the time that a person commits to participate in an array of family activities and responsibilities. Specific examples of family time demands include time spent involved in family pursuits such as traveling, attending social events and organized activities, hosting parties, and planning and making home improvements. Examples of personal development activities include participation in formal education pro- grams, music lessons, sports-related training, hobby-related self-education, participation in local government, or volunteer work. Finally, Table 5-2 includes some positive life events that are sources of nonwork challenge stressors. For example, marriage, the addition of a new family member, and graduating from school are stressful in their own way. However, each is associated with more positive, rather than negative, emotions.

H O W D O P E O P L E C O P E W I T H S T R E S S O R S ? According to the transactional theory of stress, after people appraise a stressful demand, they ask themselves, “What should I do?” and “What can I do?” to deal with this situation. These ques- tions, which refer to the secondary appraisal shown in Figure 5-1 , center on the issue of how people cope with the various stressors they face. 41 Coping refers to the behaviors and thoughts that people use to manage both the stressful demands they face and the emotions associated with those stressful demands. 42 As Table 5-3 illustrates, coping can involve many different types of activities, and these activities can be grouped into four broad categories based on two dimen- sions. 43 The first dimension refers to the method of coping (behavioral versus cognitive), and the second dimension refers to the focus of coping (problem solving versus regulation of emotions).

The first part of our coping definition highlights the idea that methods of coping can be cat- egorized on the basis of whether they involve behaviors or thoughts. Behavioral coping involves the set of physical activities that are used to deal with a stressful situation. 44 In one example of behavioral coping, a person who is confronted with a lot of time pressure at work might choose to cope by working faster. In another example, an employee who has several daily hassles might cope by avoiding work—coming in late, leaving early, or even staying home. As a final example, employees often cope with the stress of an international assignment by returning home from the assignment prematurely. As our OB Internationally feature illustrates, international assign- ments are becoming increasingly prevalent, and the costs of these early returns to organizations can be significant.

5.3 How do individuals cope with stress?

TABLE 5-3 Examples of Coping Strategies

PROBLEM-FOCUSED EMOTION-FOCUSED

Behavioral Methods • Working harder • Seeking assistance • Acquiring additional

resources

• Engaging in alternative activities • Seeking support • Venting anger

Cognitive Methods • Strategizing • Self-motivation • Changing priorities

• Avoiding, distancing, and ignoring • Looking for the positive in the

negative • Reappraising

Source: Adapted from J.C. Latack and S.J. Havlovic, “Coping with Job Stress: A Conceptual Evaluation Framework for Coping Measures,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 13 (1992), pp. 479–508.

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142 C H A P T E R 5 Stress

slowly, chances are that you’re a Type A person. With that said, one way to tell for sure is to fill out the Type A questionnaire in our OB Assessments feature.

In the context of this chapter, the Type A Behavior Pattern is important because it can influ- ence stressors, stress, and strains. First, the Type A Behavior Pattern may have a direct influence on the level of stressors that a person confronts. To understand why this might be true, consider that Type A persons tend to be hard-driving and have a strong desire to achieve. Because the behaviors that reflect these tendencies are valued by the organization, Type A individuals receive

5.4 How does the Type A Behavior Pattern influence the stress process?

O B A S S E S S M E N T S

TYPE A BEHAVIOR PATTERN Do you think that you’re especially sensitive to stress? This assessment is designed to measure the extent to which you’re a Type A person—someone who typically engages in hard-driving, competitive, and aggressive behavior. Answer each question using the response scale provided. (For more assessments relevant to this chapter, please visit http://connect.mcgraw-hill.com .)

1 STRONGLY DISAGREE

2 DISAGREE

3 SLIGHTLY DISAGREE

4 NEUTRAL

5 SLIGHTLY AGREE

6 AGREE

7 STRONGLY

AGREE

1. Having work to complete “stirs me into action” more than other people.

2. When a person is talking and takes too long to come to the point, I frequently feel like hurrying the person along.

3. Nowadays, I consider myself to be relaxed and easygoing.

4. Typically, I get irritated extremely easily.

5. My best friends would rate my general activity level as very high.

6. I definitely tend to do most things in a hurry.

7. I take my work much more seriously than most.

8. I seldom get angry.

9. I often set deadlines for myself work-wise.

10. I feel very impatient when I have to wait in line.

11. I put much more effort into my work than other people do.

12. Compared with others, I approach life much less seriously.

SCORING AND INTERPRETATION Subtract your answers to the boldfaced questions from 8, with the difference being your new answers for those questions. For example, if your original answer for Question 3 was “2,” your new answer is “6” (8 – 2). Then sum your answers for the twelve questions. If your scores sum up to 53 or above, you would be considered a Type A person, which means that you may perceive higher stress levels in your life and be more sensitive to that stress. If your scores sum up to 52 or below, you would be considered a Type B person. This means that you sense less stress in your life and are less sensitive to the stress that’s experienced.

Source: C.D. Jenkins, S.J. Zyzanski, and R.H. Rosenman, “Progress Toward Validation of a Computer Scored Test for the Type A Coronary Prone Behavior Pattern,” Psychosomatic Medicine Vol. 22, 193, 202 (1971). Reprinted with permission of Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.

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140 C H A P T E R 5 Stress

you. Although people react to stress differently, you may have felt unusually exhausted, irritable, and achy. What might be surprising to you is that the mechanism within your body that gives you the ability to function effectively in the face of stressful demands is the same mechanism that ends up causing you these problems. So what is this mechanism?

Essentially, the body has a set of responses that allow it to adapt and function effectively in the face of stressful demands, but if the stressful demands do not ramp down or the demands occur too frequently, the body’s adaptive responses become toxic. 56 More specifically, when people are confronted with a stressor, their bodies secrete chemical compounds that increase their heart rate and blood pressure, as blood is redirected away from vital organs, such as the spleen, to the brain and skeletal muscles. 57 Unfortunately, if the chemicals in the blood remain elevated because of prolonged or repeated exposure to the stressor, the body begins to break down, and several negative consequences are set into motion. As shown in Figure 5-2 , those negative consequences come in three varieties: physiological strains, psychological strains, and behavioral strains. 58

Physiological strains that result from stressors occur in at least four systems of the human body. First, stressors can reduce the effectiveness of the body’s immune system, which makes it more difficult for the body to ward off illness and infection. Have you ever noticed that you’re more likely to catch a cold during or immediately after final exam week? Second, stressors can harm the body’s cardiovascular system, cause the heart to race, increase blood pressure, and

FIGURE 5-2 Examples of Strain

STRESS

Physiological Strains

(illness, high blood pressure, coronary artery disease, headaches, back pain,

stomachaches)

Psychological Strains

(depression, anxiety, irritability, forgetfulness, inability to think clearly,

reduced confidence, burnout)

Behavioral Strains

(alcohol and drug use, teeth grinding, compulsive

behaviors, overeating)

Source: From M.E. Burke, 2005 Benefits Survey Report, Society of Human Resource Management.

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nonwork domains. However, feeling stressed also depends on how those stressors are appraised and coped with, and the degree to which physiological, psychological, and behavioral strains are experienced. Finally, answering the question depends on whether the employee is “Type A” or “Type B” and whether the employee has a high or low amount of social support. Understand- ing all of these factors can help explain why some people can shoulder stressful circumstances for weeks at a time, whereas others seem to be “at the end of their rope” when faced with even relatively minor job demands.

H O W I M P O RTA N T I S S T R E S S ?

In the previous sections, we described how stressors and the stress process influence strains and, ultimately, people’s health and well-being. Although these relationships are important to under- stand, you’re probably more curious about the impact that stressors have on job performance and organizational commitment, the two outcomes in our integrative model of OB. Figure 5-4 summarizes the research evidence linking hindrance stressors to performance and commitment, and Figure 5-5 summarizes the research evidence linking challenge stressors to performance and commitment. We limit our discussion to relationships with work stressors rather than nonwork stressors, because this is where researchers have focused the most attention.

Figure 5-4 reveals that hindrance stressors have a weak negative relationship with job perfor- mance. 76 A general explanation for this negative relationship is that hindrance stressors result in strains and negative emotions that reduce the overall level of physical, cognitive, and emotional

FIGURE 5-3 Why Are Some Employees More “Stressed” Than Others?

Stressors

Type A Behavior Pattern

Social Support

Hindrance Challenge

Work

Nonwork

STRESS Psychological Strains

Physiological Strains

Behavioral Strains

5.5 How does stress affect job performance and organiza- tional commitment?

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energy that people could otherwise bring to their job duties. 77 The detrimental effect that strains have on job performance becomes quite easy to understand when you consider the nature of the individual strains that we mentioned in the previous section. Certainly, you would agree that physiological, psychological, and behavioral strains in the form of illnesses, exhaustion, and drunkenness would detract from employee effectiveness in almost any job context.

Figure 5-4 also reveals that hindrance stressors have a strong negative relationship with orga- nizational commitment. 78 Why might this be? Well, hindrance stressors evoke strains, which are generally dissatisfying to people, and as we discussed in the previous chapter, satisfaction has a strong impact on the degree to which people feel committed to their organization. 79 People who work at jobs that they know are causing them to feel constantly sick and exhausted will likely be dissatisfied with their jobs and feel less desire to stay with the organization and more desire to consider alternatives.

Turning now to challenge stressors, the story becomes somewhat different. As shown in Figure 5-5 , challenge stressors have a weak relationship with job performance and a moderate relation- ship with organizational commitment. However, in contrast to the results for hindrance stressors, the relationships are positive rather than negative. 80 In other words, employees who experience higher levels of challenge stressors also tend to have higher levels of job performance and orga- nizational commitment. These relationships stand in sharp contrast with the lower levels of job performance and organizational commitment that result when employees confront higher levels of hindrance stressors. So what explains this difference? Although challenge stressors result in strains, which detract from performance and commitment, they also tend to trigger the type of positive emotions and problem-focused coping strategies that are characteristic of employees who are highly engaged in their jobs. 81 The net benefits of these positive emotions, problem-focused

FIGURE 5-4 Effects of Hindrance Stressors on Performance and Commitment

Hindrance stressors have a weak negative relationship with job performance. People who experience higher levels of hindrance stressors tend to have lower levels of task performance. Not much is known about the impact of hindrance stressors on Citizenship Behavior and Counterproductive Behavior.

N E G A T I V E

Job Performance

Hindrance Stressors

Organizational Commitment

Hindrance Stressors

Hindrance stressors have a strong negative relationship with Organizational Commitment. People who experience higher levels of hindrance stressors tend to have lower levels of Affective Commitment and Normative Commitment. Relationships with Continuance Commitment are weaker.

Represents a strong correlation (around .50 in magnitude).

Represents a moderate correlation (around .30 in magnitude).

Represents a weak correlation (around .10 in magnitude).

Sources: J.A. LePine, N.P. Podsakoff, and M.A. LePine, “A Meta-Analytic Test of the Challenge Stressor– Hindrance Stressor Framework: An Explanation for Inconsistent Relationships Among Stressors and Performance,” Academy of Management Journal 48 (2005), pp. 764–75; N.P. Podsakoff, J.A. LePine, and M.A. LePine, “Differential Challenge Stressor–Hindrance Stressor Relationships with Job Attitudes, Turnover Intentions, Turnover, and Withdrawal Behavior: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (2007), pp. 438–54.

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146 C H A P T E R 5 Stress

coping strategies, and engagement outweigh the costs of the added strain, meaning that challenge stressors tend to be beneficial to employee performance and commitment when both the posi- tives and negatives are considered. 82 These positive effects of challenge stressors have been dem- onstrated for executives, 83 employees in lower-level jobs, 84 and even students. 85 It’s important to point out, however, that high levels of challenge stressors may have negative consequences that only become apparent over the long term. People whose jobs are filled with challenge stressors experience strains that can result in illness, but because they tend to be more satisfied, commit- ted, and engaged with their jobs, they come to work anyway. This phenomenon, which is referred to as presenteeism, can result in prolonged illness, as well as the spread of illness, and ultimately a downward spiral of impaired performance and employee health. 86 In fact, it may surprise you to learn that the reductions in productivity that result from presenteeism are even larger than reductions in productivity that result from employee absenteeism. 87

A P P L I C AT I O N : S T R E S S M A N A G E M E N T

Previously, we described how employee stress results in strains that cost organizations in terms of reduced employee performance and commitment. However, there are other important costs to consider that relate to employee health. Most organizations provide some sort of health care benefits for their employees, 88 and all but the smallest organizations pay worker’s compensation insurance, the rates for which are determined, in part, by the nature of the job and the organiza- tion’s history of work-related injuries and illnesses. So what role does stress play in these costs?

FIGURE 5-5 Effects of Challenge Stressors on Performance and Commitment

Challenge stressors have a weak positive relationship with job performance. People who experience higher levels of challenge stressors tend to have higher levels of task performance. Not much is known about the impact of challenge stressors on Citizenship Behavior and Counterproductive Behavior.

Challenge stressors have a moderate positive relationship with Organizational Commitment. People who experience higher levels of challenge stressors tend to have higher levels of Affective Commitment and Normative Commitment. Relationships with Continuance Commitment are weaker.

Job Performance

Challenge Stressors

Organizational Commitment

Challenge Stressors

Represents a strong correlation (around .50 in magnitude).

Represents a moderate correlation (around .30 in magnitude).

Represents a weak correlation (around .10 in magnitude).

Sources: J.A. LePine, N.P. Podsakoff, and M.A. LePine, “A Meta-Analytic Test of the Challenge Stressor–Hindrance Stressor Framework: An Explanation for Inconsistent Relationships Among Stressors and Performance,” Academy of Management Journal 48 (2005), pp. 764–75; N.P. Podsakoff, J.A. LePine, and M.A. LePine, “Differential Challenge Stressor–Hindrance Stressor Relationships with Job Attitudes, Turnover Intentions, Turnover, and Withdrawal Behavior: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (2007), pp. 438–54.

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153C H A P T E R 5 Stress

Although Google offers some fairly extravagant perks to help employees manage their strains—for example, massage, yoga, and meditation—none compare with the MetroNap Energy Pods the company uses. 121 An Energy Pod consists of a reclining chair with an egg- shaped cap that folds down to cover the occupant’s head and torso. The occupant listens to music in an isolated cocoon-like environment and drifts off to sleep, and then after a short rest, light and vibration provide gentle cues that it’s time to wake up. 122 The idea behind the Energy Pods is that a short rest of 20 minutes or so helps people recover from the demands of working hard so that they’re reenergized for the work that lies ahead. In fact, research has demonstrated that naps can reduce stress, as well as improve cognitive-functioning, memory, and mood. 123 These benefits may be especially important given that people in the United States do not get enough sleep at night, 124 and short naps may help people overcome associated sleepiness. 125

It’s important to note that although naps may be revitalizing, they cannot bring people all the way back to their peak level of health and performance if they continuously overwork and lose sleep at night. 126 Moreover, the idea of a company paying people to sleep while at work is likely to seem quite strange. That said, companies spend significant resources on practices that help employees cope with stress and strains, and there are indications that these programs have a pos- itive return on investment. For example, 40 percent of all large companies in the United States spend more than $200,000 a year on programs that promote employee health and wellness, 127 and there’s a reduction of about $1.65 in health care expenses for every dollar an organization invests in these types of programs. 128 Although the Energy Pods retail for approximately $8,000, it’s unknown how much Google paid for them, how much they cost to maintain, and what type of return they expect from this investment. It is clear, however, that Google is willing to invest in innovations they believe will promote and maintain a healthy and productive workforce.

5.1 Describe how the work that’s done at Google can result in employees feeling both very stressed and also very positive about their work and the company. In what way do these effects depend on Google being able to hire the “right” kind of employees?

5.2 Describe the different ways that the Energy Pods influence the stress process. Might there be any differences in how employees use the Energy Pods to cope with hindrance stressors as opposed to challenge stressors?

5.3 Describe how individuals who exhibit the Type A Behavior Pattern would likely react to the Energy Pods. What role could social support play in promoting the acceptance of Energy Pods and similar strain-reducing practices?

E X E R C I S E : M A N A G I N G S T R E S S

The purpose of this exercise is to explore ways of managing stress to reduce strain. This exer- cise uses groups, so your instructor will either assign you to a group or ask you to create your own group. The exercise has the following steps:

5.1 One method of managing stress is finding a way to reduce the hindrance stressors encoun- tered on the job. In your group, describe the hindrance stressors that you currently are experiencing. Each student should describe the two to three most important stressors fol- lowing the chart below. Other students should then offer strategies for reducing or alleviat- ing the stressors.

HINDRANCE STRESSORS EXPERIENCED STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING STRESSORS

Role Conflict:

Role Ambiguity:

Role Overload:

Daily Hassles:

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5.2 Another method of managing stress is to improve work–life balance. The circle below rep- resents how “waking hours” are divided among five types of activities: school, work, per- sonal relaxation, time with friends, and time with family. Draw two versions of your own circle: your waking hours as they currently are, and your waking hours as you wish them to be. Other students should then offer strategies for making the necessary life changes.

School

Time w/ Friends

Work Time w/ Family

Personal Relaxation

5.3 A third method of managing stress is improving hardiness —a sort of mental and physical health that can act as a buffer, preventing stress from resulting in strain. The table below lists a number of questions that can help diagnose your hardiness. Discuss your answers for each question, then with the help of other students, brainstorm ways to increase that hardiness factor.

HARDINESS FACTOR STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING FACTOR

Relaxation: Do you spend enough time reading, listening to music, meditating, or pursuing your hobbies?

Exercise: Do you spend enough time doing cardiovascular, strength, and flexibility sorts of exercises?

Diet: Do you manage your diet adequately by eating healthily and avoiding foods high in fat?

5.4 Class discussion (whether in groups or as a class) should center on two issues. First, many of the stress-managing factors, especially in Steps 2 and 3, take up precious time. Does this make them an ineffective strategy for managing stress? Why or why not? Second, consider your Type A score in the OB Assessments for this chapter. If you are high on Type A, does that make these strategies more or less important? 129

E N D N O T E S

5.1 Elgin, B. “Google’s Leap May Slow Rival’s Growth.” Business- Week, July 18, 2005, p. 45; Ferguson, C.H. “What’s Next for Google?” Technology Review, January 2005, pp. 38–46.

5.2 “Press Release: March 2011 U.S. Search Engine Rankings.” comScore, March 20, 2011, http:// www.comscore.com/ Press_Events/Press_ Releases/2011/4/ comScore_Releases_

March_2011_U.S._ Search_Engine_Rank- ings .

5.3 “Google History.” Google Corporate Website, (n.d.), http:// www.google.com/ corporate/history.html .

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School

Time w/ Friends

Work Time w/ Family

Personal Relaxation

HARDINESS FACTOR STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING FACTOR

Relaxation: Do you spend enough time reading, listening to music, meditating, or pursuing your hobbies?

Exercise: Do you spend enough time doing cardiovascular, strength, and flexibility sorts of exercises?

Diet: Do you manage your diet adequately by eating healthily and avoiding foods high in fat?

E N D N O T E S

5.1 Elgin, B. “Google’s Leap May Slow Rival’s Growth.” Business- Week, July 18, 2005, p. 45; Ferguson, C.H. “What’s Next for Google?” Technology Review, January 2005, pp. 38–46.

5.2 “Press Release: March 2011 U.S. Search Engine Rankings.” comScore, March 20, 2011, http:// www.comscore.com/ Press_Events/Press_ Releases/2011/4/ comScore_Releases_

March_2011_U.S._ Search_Engine_Rank- ings .

5.3 “Google History.” Google Corporate Website, (n.d.), http:// www.google.com/ corporate/history.html .

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