due tonight at 9pm

Take a deep breath and slowly look around you. What do you see?

Mostly likely, copious amounts of different types of information

surround you. In addition to the laptop or other device you’re using to

read this text, you might have a yearly planner, your smart phone, a

magazine, or a book lying beside you. Now take a moment and listen

to the sounds around you. You may hear a television in the

background, perhaps with commercials or news updates, or music, or

traffic outside. The point of this brief exercise is for you to take notice

and acknowledge the amount and variety of information permeating

your life. Some of it may be in a -physical form, and some of it digital.

The way you take in, process, evaluate, and use the information

around you determines your own personal level of information literacy.

What Is Information Literacy?

Information literacy is the ability to identify a need for information

and successfully locate, evaluate, and use that information ethically

and legally for a determined purpose. For this course we’ll focus on

information literacy regarding your research papers for school. But

information literacy is important in all aspects of life. Being information

literate can help you research schools to find the one that’s best for

your child, find the right sources to determine whether a folk remedy is

a valid treatment for illness, compare products critically to find the best

value, and think creatively to solve problems.

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Figure 1.1 Information literacy framework

Source: Association of College and Research Libraries. (2014).

Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education. Retrieved

from http://acrl.ala.org/ilstandards/wp-

content/uploads/2015/01/Framework-MW15-Board-Docs.pdf.

Recently, the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL),

a division of the American Library Association (ALA), developed an

information literacy framework that expands on this definition (Figure

1.1). The framework identifies six threshold concepts meant to guide

students in the process of becoming lifelong learners through the

acquisition of information literacy skills (ACRL, 2015). A threshold

concept is a central or main idea within a specific subject that can

transform your perception of that subject, as it becomes integrated

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into your way of thinking (Booth & Mathews, 2012). The ACRL’s six

threshold concepts are

1. Research as inquiry: The research process is all about asking

questions. Good research questions are dynamic and change

according to the results of background research. As the

understanding of a research topic increases, so should the

quality of the research question. You will explore this concept in

more depth later in the module, where you will learn how to

develop a research question and conduct background research.

You also will explore the different characteristics and formats of

information that can be used to help answer your research

question.

2. Scholarship as conversation: Experts within a field

communicate to share information, debate their ideas, and gain

understanding. They often contest each other’s ideas and seek

out the opinions of other scholars within their fields to test these

ideas. This concept will be discussed further later in the module,

where you will learn the difference between scholarly and

popular information sources and where to locate them. It is

explored further in Module 4.

3. Information creation as a process: Information is presented in

different formats because of the purpose of its creation.

Considering the creation process of information types will help

you select appropriate sources. Later in the module you will learn

more about this concept and be introduced to formats of print,

multimedia, and digital resources.

4. Searching as strategic exploration: The one perfect source

that answers all aspects of your research question most likely

does not exist. Instead, you will need to gather bits and pieces of

information from various sources. When researching, explore

many different formats of information. Module 2 provides more

information about this concept and introduces you to strategic

searching in a digital library.

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5. Authority is constructed and contextual: All information

sources are not created equal. Reliable sources come from

authors with experience and expertise, also known as an

authority, in the subject area they are writing about. This concept

is further discussed in Module 3, which covers what gives an

author the authority or credibility to write on a particular topic.

Module 3 also introduces a set of criteria that you can use to

evaluate sources you find on the Internet.

6. Information has value: Information has value for the author,

society, and the publisher. In many ways, it can be considered a

commodity. Information can have a monetary value, an

educational value, and also a transformation value. Module 5

explores this concept further, including an introduction to

copyright and correctly crediting your sources.

These six threshold concepts encompass what it means to be

information literate in the 21st century. You may have noticed that

these concepts do not exist in isolation, and there is bound to be some

overlap between them. As you master these concepts, your

information literacy skills will improve, along with your effectiveness as

a student and working professional.

It is important to note that information literacy is not the same as

computer literacy. Often there is confusion between the two.

Computer literacy is the fluent use of technology over a range of

platforms. In contrast, information literacy is the fluent use of

information over a range of environments. It’s quite possible you may

be an expert in using computers and a novice in using information.

Although a certain level of computer skill is mandatory for accessing

information online, information literacy is a much broader competency.

Why Is Information Literacy Important?

Do you still subscribe to physical newspapers and magazines? Or do

you choose to access this content online through your computer, iPad,

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tablet, or smart phone? Today, more information is produced in a

digital format without a physical counterpart than ever before.

Consider the technological advances you’ve witnessed in the past 10

years. How have they changed your daily routines? Have you learned

new skills to keep up with the technology? What about learning new

skills to process the increased amount of information you encounter

daily? As new websites and new technologies are introduced every

day, the need for information literacy is greater than ever.

As you continue to progress through life, the amount of information

produced will continue to increase at an incredible rate. Much of this

information will be published on the Internet without any verification or

vetting process. The volume of this information contributes to our

feelings of information overload and the need to make quick decisions

about what sources of information to use. When you are information

literate, you have the skills to recognize when information is needed

and have the ability to efficiently locate this information. Once you’ve

located the information, you are able to analyze, evaluate, and have

confidence in your ability to use this information creatively, ethically,

and effectively.

Another benefit of developing information literacy is that it places you

on the path toward becoming a lifelong learner. This is the deliberate

act of choosing to learn new ideas and concepts throughout your life.

Lifelong learners embrace the process and challenges associated with

acquiring new knowledge. They have a growth mindset in that they

seek out opportunities to learn new things and put forth the effort to do

so. Reflect upon the following quote from the ALA:

Ultimately, information literate people are those who have learned how

to learn. They know how to learn because they know how knowledge

is organized, how to find information, and how to use information in

such a way that others can learn from them. They are people

prepared for lifelong learning, because they can always find the

information needed for any task or decision at hand. (ALA, 1989)

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Here are some additional benefits to developing your information

literacy skills:

 Knowing when information is needed, locating it efficiently and

effectively.

 Critically evaluating whether the information you consume is

reliable and accurate.

 Using advanced search techniques to find the most relevant

information.

 Making informed opinions and judgments based on quality

information.

 Organizing and presenting information in an effective way.

 Understanding the legal and ethical issues relating to using

information. (ACRL, 2000)

Developing information literacy skills can also benefit you in the

workplace. Reports from U.S. employers point to a growing interest in

the development of information literacy, critical thinking, and lifelong

learning in their employees (Weiner, 2011). Moreover, the

development of information literacy skills within the workplace has the

potential to produce “employees who are able to recognize and

understand the central place that information, its creation, production,

reproduction, circulation, and dissemination play in sustainable

workplace performance” (Lloyd, 2011, p. 280). In 2009, the White

House declared the month of October to be National Information

Literacy Awareness Month. President Obama stated in that

announcement:

Rather than merely possessing data, we must also learn the skills

necessary to acquire, collate, and evaluate information for any

situation . . . National Information Literacy Month highlights the need

for all Americans to be adept in the skills necessary to effectively

navigate the information age (Obama, 2009).

The bottom line is that no matter what industry you work in

(healthcare, government, education, business, and so on), knowing

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how to integrate and use a variety of information from diverse print

and digital sources is a necessity. Sticking to what you know in the

workplace may feel comfortable. However, stepping outside your

comfort zone and working to increase your workplace information

literacy skills can have positive effects for you and the organization

you work for.

o become information literate, you need to develop a certain set of

skills, including critical thinking, creative thinking, problem solving, and

higher-order thinking. Once you’ve developed these skills, you’ll be

able to apply them to many other areas of your life.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking requires the use of a specific set of skills to

determine the value of an -information source: inference, analysis,

evaluation, interpretation, explanation, and self--regulation. Individuals

who are information literate use critical thinking skills when taking in

information by evaluating a source for accuracy and fairness. With the

amount of information we are exposed to on a daily basis, we need

strong reasoning skills to determine fact from fiction. This is where

critical thinking comes in. Critical thinkers are skeptical and do not

simply accept all the arguments and conclusions they encounter.

Instead, they question these arguments and conclusions, wanting to

see the evidence involved. Critical thinkers think actively and

strategically about the information they encounter by using a set of

skills. Let’s take a closer look at each of these skills and see how

Sherry, a marketing department employee, uses them during a project

at work (Facione, 2011).

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Inference

Inference is the process of using facts to determine an accurate

conclusion or hypothesis from the information available. Given what

we know so far, what conclusions can we draw? What can be ruled

out? What additional information do we need to resolve this question?

Sherry’s boss has asked her to look up demographic information so

that the company can target a possible new group of customers to

market its existing products. Sales of company products are holding

steady in their current markets, but Sherry’s boss would like to find a

way to boost sales by selling to a new audience. Sherry begins by

considering estimates and projections for those in her new target

group. She then gathers data on their product and spending

behaviors. She continues researching and collecting factual data on

the target group. Once the necessary data is gathered, Sherry uses

her inference skills to draw conclusions and infer if more testing of this

demographic is needed. This approach helps Sherry recognize if any

potential new customer opportunities exist for her company. Based on

the data she collected, Sherry concludes that this new demographic

has potential, but further testing is needed.

Analysis

Analysis is the process of examining pieces of information in parts and

as a whole to determine the intended meaning of the information and

what it represents. What are the arguments for and against? Why do

you think that? What assumptions must we make to accept that

conclusion?

Sherry’s boss is happy with her recommendation for a new

demographic and asks that she begin organizing a focus group to

continue with the testing. Two of Sherry’s coworkers present different

plans for targeting this demographic through a focus group. Sherry

and her boss will be making the final decision of which plan to

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implement. After the presentations, Sherry and her boss analyze the

similarities and differences between the two focus group plans to

determine which one will be most successful. They want to ensure

they select the plan that will result in the most valid feedback for the

company.

Evaluation

Evaluation is the process of assessing the credibility of a person’s

experience, point of view, or opinion to determine the legitimacy of the

information being presented. Why do we think we can trust this

person’s claims? How strong are those arguments? How confident

can we be in our conclusion given what we know now?

As Sherry leads the focus group with the targeted demographic, she

discovers quite a few negative attitudes about similar products sold by

her competitors. Many of the focus group participants had strong

negative feelings about those products that Sherry fears may have

influenced others in the group. After the group concludes, Sherry

evaluates the effectiveness of the focus group and the responses she

received from participants. She must judge if the opinions she

collected are valid, meaning whether they have been affected by

previous experiences, and whether their complaints need to be

investigated further.

Interpretation

Interpretation is the process of understanding the information and then

articulating the meaning of that information to others. What does this

mean? How should we understand that? In this context, what was

intended by saying that?

Looking closely at the information Sherry has gathered, she develops

a set of options for addressing the negative responses received from

the focus group attendees. She meets with her boss to debrief her and

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share her findings. Sherry recommends the company conduct more

research before moving forward on marketing to the new targeted

demographic. Among other things, she suggests they collect data

from social media sites and also conduct one-on-one interviews with

some of the focus group attendees.

Explanation

Explanation is the process of restating and clarifying information so it

can be understood by anyone you are sharing it with. What were the

specific findings of the investigation? How did you come to that

interpretation? How did you conduct that analysis? Why do you think

this was the right answer?

With the second phase of testing complete and all data compiled,

Sherry’s boss has asked her to make two presentations on the results:

one to the CEO of the company and the other to lower-level staff. She

is aware that both groups are interested in hearing the results of her

research but knows she will need to explain the results in two very

different ways. Sherry expects the CEO may want to hear only high-

level information, whereas the staff will need more specific details, as

they will be responsible for moving the project forward. Sherry’s ability

to clearly explain her ideas while keeping her audience in mind is

critical for making sure the information she presents is understood and

well received.

Self-Regulation

Self-regulation is the process of being aware of your own thinking

skills and the process you are using to find information. How good was

your methodology and evidence? Is there a way to reconcile

conflicting conclusions? What are you missing?

After Sherry’s presentation, she checks in briefly with her boss. During

this meeting, Sherry gives her overall impressions of how the target

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demographic project went. After some self-reflection, Sherry believes

the focus group plan they selected was the best choice. However,

Sherry confesses to making a few errors during its implementation

that resulted in some of the negative responses from participants. She

admits to taking some of the responses personally and feels she

should have been more diligent in the screening of participants. In

spite of this, Sherry was able to reconcile her mistakes and make a

solid recommendation on the viability of this new demographic.

Creative Thinking

Creative thinking is a way of engaging with information imaginatively

and coming up with ideas. It requires that you keep an open mind as

you explore a wider range of possibilities. Creative thinkers “think

outside the box,” meaning that they are not limited by barriers or

restrictions; they may even break established rules and procedures.

For example, they may approach a problem in one area—such as

healthcare—by drawing on information from another area—such as

ethics. Although they employ evaluation, analysis, and other critical

thinking skills, this openness to imaginative exploration tends to make

creative thinkers innovators.

The following feature shows the differences between critical and

creative thinking. When employing your information literacy skills, you

will most likely move back and forth between thinking critically and

creatively. Neither type of thinking occurs in isolation. Instead, these

skills support each other.

Critical versus creative thinking

Critical Creative

 Analyzes ideas  Generates ideas

 Tests a hypothesis  Forms a hypothesis

 Thinks in terms of what’s probable

 Thinks in terms of what’s possible

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 Tends to think verbally, in terms of words

 Tends to think visually, in terms of images

 Thinks linearly, as in an outline

 Makes associations, as in a concept map

 Relies on logic  Relies on intuition

 Identifies  Imagines

 Describes  Speculates

 Categorizes and classifies

 Tolerates ambiguity

 Makes judgments  Suspends judgment

 Thinks in terms of the objective

 Thinks in terms of the subjective

 Considers the right answer

 Considers many possible answers

 Embraces standardized methods

 Rejects standardized methods

Consider this example of creative thinking. An organization realized it

needed to improve communication between its employees to stimulate

creativity and innovation. After some creative brainstorming and

planning, the organization decided to redesign the interior space of its

office. The goal was to break down communication barriers and to

encourage a feeling of trust and community among its employees. To

make this happen, the new design resembled a tiny, peaceful village.

It had its own village square and café, where employees were

encouraged to gather and hold meetings. Although this workplace

renovation went against some of the established norms of workplace

design, it resulted in the organization consistently launching

successful new products. This success is attributed to the increased

collaboration and communication between employees at all levels.

You may find that creative thinking does not always come easily and

you may need some stimulation to get it going. If you find this

happening to you, try brainstorming a list of ideas, talking through your

13

ideas with a friend or coworker, and avoid putting too much pressure

on yourself, which can lead to frustration.

Problem Solving

Problem solving is the process of effectively working through an

issue or question to find a solution. Individuals who are information

literate are able to successfully apply information to solve problems.

The problem-solving process consists of six steps: understand the

problem, identify the cause of the problem, brainstorm a list of

solutions, evaluate the solutions, apply the best solution, and evaluate

the outcome. Figure 1.2 illustrates the problem-solving process. At

any step in the process, you may decide to go back and repeat an

earlier step. For example, once you begin brainstorming a list of

solutions, you may find that you still do not have a good understanding

of the problem and will need to revisit step 1 to gather more

information about the problem. Let’s explore each step in the problem-

solving process and see how Mike applied this process in the

workplace.

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Figure 1.2 The steps in the problem-solving process

15

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7. Understand the problem. Before a problem can be solved, it

must be understood. To understand the problem, ask yourself

questions such as Who? What? Where? When? Why? How?

Using this step is like putting the pieces of a puzzle together.

8. For example, the production of syringes in a medical manufacturing

plant has consistently been on back order for more than three months.

It seemed the plant could not keep up with an increase in product

demands. Concerned, Mike was quite distressed by this problem and

the attention it began receiving from his bosses. He set out to identify

what was causing the backup in production and how he could

increase production to meet customer demands.

9. Mike’s first step was to begin gathering information from each of his

section managers. After reviewing their status updates and visiting

their departments, Mike discovers the backup in production is

connected to the current process used to clean the equipment. He

suspects this could be preventing his plant from meeting its increase

in production.

10. Identify the cause of the problem. Once the symptoms of

the problem have been identified, the root cause of the problem

can then begin to be defined. This will prevent a reaction to

superficial symptoms.

11. Mike needs to make sure he knows the real cause of the

problem, making sure to eliminate the symptoms of the problem. He

needs to be able to accurately state what is causing the backup in

production to company leaders. Upon deeper inspection, Mike realizes

the process for cleaning the equipment is quite time consuming and

involves numerous steps. This current cleaning process, while

sufficient when production was low, is now highly inefficient not only in

time, but also in the electricity it consumes. This holdup is resulting in

the plant not being able to meet its daily production quota.

12. Brainstorm a list of solutions. Once the problem and its

symptoms have been identified, take time to brainstorm a list of

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possible solutions. Be careful of jumping in head first to fix the

problem. This approach does not allow you to consider all of

your options.

13. Mike begins brainstorming solutions by reaching out to the

company’s other plant directors. He wants to see if they have

encountered similar issues, and if so, how they solved them. He also

meets with the equipment-cleaning manager and the staff responsible

for carrying out the machine-cleaning process. Mike gathers their input

and ideas on the situation and begins creating a list of possible

solutions.

14. The information he receives from other plant directors confirms

that (1) his is the only plant using that cleaning method and (2) his

plant is the only one still using older model equipment for production.

He was able to determine that two cleaning methods are currently

being used at other plants that may work for his. Each one would take

some modifications to work efficiently at his plant. He also received a

possible solution from the equipment-cleaning manager and his staff.

This group has been frustrated with the process for a while and was

conducting its own research into how to best solve the problem. The

group’s solution is untested, but it is the least expensive of the three

and uses less electricity than the current process or the other two

solutions on the list.

15. Evaluate the solutions. Using a set of criteria, you need to

evaluate each solution. Is the solution feasible? Is the solution

acceptable to those who have to implement it? The plant director

must now decide which of the three solutions will solve the

problem.

16. Mike begins by evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of

each solution. He decides to focus only on the options that would

meet the company’s goals of waste reduction and cost savings. This

leaves him with two possible options to carefully consider. Looking

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closely at each one, he evaluates the cost, efficiency, reliability, and

required maintenance of each cleaning alternative.

17. Apply the best solution. Once a solution is selected, there

must be careful planning to ensure it is implemented effectively.

18. Mike must now decide how to implement the new cleaning

process, who will do it, and when it will begin. Since he decided the

new cleaning method proposed by the equipment-cleaning

department would be best, he meets with the team to discuss logistics

and implementation. Additionally, he also needs to factor in how much

time it will take to put in the new system and how much production will

be lost during this process.

19. Evaluate and measure. The solution must be monitored

and evaluated to confirm its success.

20. With the new cleaning system in place, Mike must now watch

over the new system to ensure it is working properly. He must also

evaluate the results of the new cleaning system by collecting data. If

the problem is not resolved, he will need to evaluate what is and is not

effective.

21. Once the new cleaning solution was implemented, the plant’s

syringe production was able to finally handle demand. It also

significantly reduced the amount of electricity used, which ended up

meeting two of the company’s goals. The new cleaning system

became so successful that company leaders plan to use this same

system in many of their other plants.

Higher-Order Thinking

Higher-order thinking is reasonable, insightful thinking that uses

questioning, investigating, observing, comparing, and connecting to

make decisions. In 1956, educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom

developed a classification of intellectual behavior and learning. Figure

1.3 illustrates the hierarchy of Bloom’s taxonomy, beginning with a

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base level of knowledge (low-level thinking) and evolving toward

evaluation (high-order thinking).

Figure 1.3 Bloom’s taxonomy

Source: Adapted from Bloom, B. & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956).

Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational

goals, by a committee of college and university examiners. Handbook

1: Cognitive domain. New York, NY: Longman.

Bloom’s taxonomy uses a set of action verbs to represent the type of

thinking that occurs at each level: knowledge, comprehension,

application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Information literate

individuals will move throughout each of the levels depending on their

need and purpose for information. You may find you tend to use

higher levels of thinking in your academic and professional lives. Let’s

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look at each of the levels by taking a closer look at Sherry’s

demographic project as an example. Notice that two levels in Bloom’s

taxonomy are the same as two aspects of critical thinking.

22. Knowledge is the recalling of previously learned

information, and it generally lays a foundation for greater

learning.

23. This may involve remembering a variety of material, from

drawing out facts to a complete theory. When Sherry’s boss asked her

to identify a potential new demographic group, she began by making a

list of the groups they currently were not marketing to. She then

increased her knowledge of each group by locating information on

their potential interest in her company’s products.

24. Comprehension is the ability to understand the meaning

of information. This level goes one step beyond memorization.

25. At this level, Sherry begins to summarize the data she has

gathered on new demographics, looking to see if one stands out as a

potential new customer.

26. Application is the ability of knowing when to apply learned

skills in new situations.

27. Sherry and her boss could have benefited from the construction

of customer scenarios, where they could apply what they knew about

their potential new demographic before conducting the focus groups.

28. Analysis is the ability to examine pieces of information in

parts and as a whole to determine the intended meaning of the

information and what it represents.

29. Following the presentation of the two focus groups, Sherry and

her boss compare and contrast each one, analyzing which would be

most appropriate.

30. Synthesis is the ability to put together parts to form a new

whole, such as compiling various pieces of information, ideas, or

concepts together seamlessly.

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31. After all the data on the possible new demographic is in, Sherry

compiles the demographic project data, including her

recommendations into a report for the company.

32. Evaluation is the ability to use a set of criteria to judge the

value, credibility, and legitimacy of information, such as a

statement, research report, novel, or documentary work.

33. Sherry will assess her project recommendations and

performance to determine if they were accurate and effective.

Irwin was excited! He just selected the topic for his research paper in

his computer literacy course. His professor said students were to write

about the impact of a specific technology on society. Irwin looked

closely at the list of approved topics and decided to choose social

networking. He’s been using different types of social networking for

about a decade. He is comfortable using this technology and feels he

knows all there is to know about the topic. Irwin is pretty sure he has

this assignment locked up and will get a top grade.

As Irwin sits down to begin writing his paper, he is confident in his

knowledge of the topic and thinks he will have it written pretty quickly.

He’s not even concerned about meeting the five- to seven-page

requirement because he knows he has plenty to say on this topic.

Irwin begins his paper by sharing how he uses social networking to

stay in touch with his family and friends, when gaming with others, and

when keeping up with his personal interests. He then decides to move

into writing about which social networking sites he uses and why.

When he finishes, he looks at what he has typed. Irwin realizes that he

doesn’t even have a full page written and has already exhausted all he

knew about the topic. This sudden realization surprises and concerns

him. Irwin decides he might need to actually conduct some research.

Faced with this new understanding, he pulls out the assignment

instructions and starts over.

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The remainder of this module and Modules 2 through 5 focus on the

research process. This section will introduce the steps of the research

process, including a full discussion of the first step, define the need

and the audience. Each subsequent module covers the remaining

steps of the research process in more depth.

Step 1: Define the Need and the Audience

The first step in the research process is acknowledging a need for

information and knowing the audience to whom you will be presenting

the information. In your academic life, this need can come from a

research assignment given to you by your instructor, like it did for

Irwin. You may be assigned a research topic, expected to select a

topic from a given list, or be allowed to pick your own topic. At your

23

workplace, the need for information may come from a presentation

you are required to make or research your boss woud like you to

conduct on a competing company.

Use these questions to define your need for information

 What types of information do I need?

Facts? Opinions? Both sides of an argument? Statistics?

Primary or secondary sources?

 How much information do I need?

Detailed and in depth or broad in scope? Summary or overview?

 Is there a viewpoint I should follow?

Age? Gender? Time frame? Era? Location?

 Who is the audience for this information?

Boss? Coworkers? The public? Professor? Classmates? Family

and friends?

At this stage of the research process, consider who will make up your

audience, what information is most relevant to them, and what writing

style would be most appropriate. In your workplace, your audience

may be your boss, coworkers, clients, and department heads, or

perhaps you are researching information that will be presented to the

public through your company’s website. At school, your audience will

most always be your instructor and classmates. In your everyday life,

your family may want to try out a new restaurant and you have offered

to locate one. Since your family will be your audience, your

presentation of your restaurant research will be much less formal.

Defining the Topic

After you identify what information is needed and who your audience

will be, it’s time to begin defining your topic. If you have only a general

idea of what your topic is, like Irwin did, it’s important that you conduct

background research to gain a clearer understanding of the questions

you need to answer or problems you need to solve with your research.

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Use encyclopedias, Google, and even Wikipedia for background

research. Keep in mind that the research process is not a one-way

street. Think of it as a river. The process has a beginning and an end,

but it does not flow in a completely straight line. It begins with

background research and your preconceived notions and beliefs about

a particular topic. As you learn more about the topic, those

preconceptions change and you begin to ask different, more informed

questions. This alters the direction of your initial path and helps guide

you toward a more fully formed research question. You will need to

test and refine your topic based on the background research you

uncover. Remember to keep your mind open to other ideas or

perspectives on your topic that you previously may not have

considered. Make sure you never finalize a research topic without

conducting some exploratory or background research first.

Let’s check in with Irwin. Once he discovered he really didn’t know as

much as he thought he did on his topic, he decided to use a KWHL

chart (Table 1.1) to help get his thoughts together. He fills in what he

knows about his topic (K), then brainstorms ideas for what he wants to

know about social networking (W), and lists how he could get those

answers (H). Later, he will fill in what he learned about social

networking (L). After filling in the first three sections of the chart, he

conducts background research using Wikipedia and Google. He can’t

believe how much he did not know about social networking and its

impact on society. He even adds more topics he’d like to learn about

to his chart.

As you conduct background research, consider using a KWHL chart or

a concept map. Each one can help you organize your thoughts and

help you figure out if you’ve located a sufficient amount of background

research. Give yourself time to complete this type of reflection, and if

you feel your KWHL or concept map is incomplete, try conducting

more background research. (Refer to your course for more about

concept maps.)

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Table 1.1: Irwin’s KWHL chart, just starting

K What do I know?

W What do I want to know?

H How do I find out?

L What have I learned?

Social networking has been around for at least 10 years. It’s useful for staying in touch with friends and family. It helps me keep up with groups and -organizations I’m ­interested in. Some of the gaming systems I use have social networks built in.

How do others use social networking? Has it been around for longer than 10 years? Does it impact my life the same way as it does others in society? What are popular social networking tools? Has social networking evolved with the needs of society? What are popular social networking tools in the workplace? How are companies using social networks to

Background research: -Wikipedia and Google

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enhance their organizations?

Moving from the Topic to the Research Question

Once you have fleshed out your topic and begun conducting

background research, you are ready to turn your topic into a solid

research question. Earlier in this module, we explored the ACRL’s

information literacy threshold concept, research as inquiry. This

concept acknowledges that research can be repetitive in its process

and may require you to revisit different stages of the research

process. It also involves asking questions about your topic that

increase in complexity. To do this, you will need to critically reflect on

your topic and think about what you really need or want to know. One

step should be developing a basic idea of current -happenings within

the field you are studying. Start by making sure you understand basic

vocabulary and are aware of sticking points between experts in this

field. You can find this information by consulting a variety of sources

such as blogs, scholarly journals, and websites from organizations. If

you did not locate these items when first conducting background

research, you will need to continue with this process. Try searching for

leading scholars or experts who could point you toward key

publications in that field. The information you gather here has the

power to positively influence the direction of your research.

Additionally, it can also lead you to noticing gaps in your knowledge of

the topic.

Students who are developing their abilities in the research as inquiry

threshold concept

 formulate questions for research based on gaps in information or

data available.

 practice thinking critically when confronting new learning, where

lack of familiarity with new methods and approaches requires

additional effort.

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 value intellectual curiosity in developing questions and learning

new investigative methods.

 recognize that learning is a process and that reflecting on errors

or mistakes leads to new insights and discoveries (ACRL, 2015).

Constructing a good research question is one of the most important

steps in the research process. A successful research question is clear,

concise, and open ended. It effectively summarizes the topic you are

investigating, and is written to receive an objective answer based on

facts. Unsuccessful research questions are vague and aim to explore

everything about a topic. Avoid writing research questions that elicit a

yes or no answer or an opinion. Practice taking the information from

your KHWL chart or concept map and try writing three or four

questions that address different subtopics of your question. Following

are examples of some unsuccessful and successful research

questions.

Unsuccessful research questions: Vague, broad questions that

tend to generate yes/no or opinion-based answers.

 Who is Abraham Lincoln?

(This question is too broad and vague.)

 Why is social media harmful?

(Is it? This question is leading toward an answer based on a

predetermined opinion. Remember to leave any bias or prejudice

you may have out of your questions.)

 Do cows carry diseases?

(This is a closed question with a yes or no answer. This type of

question would work only if you were tasked with exploring both

sides of the issue.)

Successful research questions: Clear, concise, and specific

questions that tend to generate objective answers based on facts.

 What events led to Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation

Proclamation of 1863?

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(This question is clear, concise, specific, and can be answered

with facts.)

 How are online users addressing privacy issues on social

networking sites like Facebook?

(This question is clear and concise, and it expands upon an

issue that can be answered with data from Facebook users.)

 How do cows in the United States contract respiratory diseases?

(This question is open-ended and can be answered by factual

research.)

Remember, research is a process. Conducting background research

on your topic will aid in the construction of your research question.

Sources such as Wikipedia, online encyclopedias, and websites are

all good resources to use for background research.

Let’s check back in with Irwin and see how he is progressing with his

research assignment. When we left him, he was organizing his

thoughts and ideas using a KWHL chart and conducting background

research on his topic. The sources listed in his chart are the ones

Irwin used to complete his background research and to form his

research question. He learned through his background research that

social media has impacted quite a few facets of our society, too many

to cover in one paper. During his background research, he learned a

bit more about how social networking could be used to possibly

improve a person’s career options. This sparks Irwin’s interest. He

decides to focus on the impact of social networking in the workplace

and structures his research question as:

“What is the impact of social networking in the 21st century?”

Step 2: Locate and Access Information

In this step of the research process, you will critically reflect on your

research question and brainstorm the types of resources you will need

to answer that question. This is your research plan, and it should

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include accessing information from libraries and the Internet. Use this

plan as your guide for incorporating a variety of sources into your

paper. If you are required to use a certain type of resource, such as a

scholarly one for an academic assignment, make a note of it and

include it at the top of your plan so that you do not forget.

Irwin’s assignment requires that he use his course textbook, two

scholarly sources, and one source of his choice in the development of

his paper. This means that he needs to locate three sources on his

own. Irwin jots down this information on his research plan and begins

considering what types of sources he could use.

Later in this module, you will be introduced to different types and

formats of information that you can use to help answer your research

question. Modules 2 and 3 instruct you on how to improve your

researching using libraries and the Internet.

Use these questions to locate the information you need

 What types of information should I use?

Books? Journals? Encyclopedias? Magazines? Newspapers?

 Where can these information types be located?

Library? Internet? Stores? People?

 How can this information be accessed once I locate it?

Borrowed? Downloaded? Printed? Photocopied?

 How should I organize the information I access?

Digital folders? Physical folders?

Step 3: Evaluate Information

As you search for information, you will discover no shortage of

possible resources. However, much of what you’ll find online cannot

actually be considered good information. Evaluating these resources

requires that you use a set of criteria. Module 3 shows you how to

effectively use your information literacy skills to apply the CRAAP test

to information. The acronym CRAAP stands for currency, relevance,

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authority, accuracy, and purpose. As you conduct this evaluation, you

will need to make sure the resources you choose not only pass the

CRAAP test, but also meet your information need.

Step 4: Organize Information

In the fourth step of the research process, you’ll organize both the

information you’ve gathered and the presentation of that information.

Keeping the information you located in steps 2 and 3 organized will

help you to present the information from those resources in an

organized manner. Many different systems are available to help

organize the information you collect. Module 4 details what these

systems are.

Use these questions to organize your information effectively

 How do I organize the key pieces of information from each of

my resources?

By main ideas? By viewpoints? By key issues?

 How do I think of information in new ways?

 What is the best way for me to organize large amounts of

information?

 How do I organize information for presentation?

Chronologically? By problem versus solution? By priority of

ideas?

Step 5: Communicate Information

The final step is to effectively communicate the information you’ve

gathered to satisfy the information needed. The communication style

you’ll use should be appropriate to your audience, whether it was

verbal, visual, or electronic. Additionally, you’ll consistently cite your

sources using a format like the American Psychological Association

(APA) style. Module 5 explains these concepts in further detail.

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Use these questions to communicate information effectively

 Who is my audience? Is the setting casual or formal?

 What method is best for communicating my research results?

Written? Verbal? Visual? Digital?

 For the selected method, what type of presentation best meets

my communication need?

Report? Narrative? Proposal? Slide presentation? Image?

Diagram?

 How do I properly cite the sources I use?

Your Roadmap to Success: Section 1.4

Learning Outcome: Compare and contrast various characteristics of

information.

Why is this important?

How does this relate to your success in this course?

To review the course learning outcomes and their relevance to you,

see the Your Roadmap to Success feature at the beginning of this

book. Best of luck on your journey to success!

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The type of information you look for will vary according to the question

you are trying to answer. This section identifies a variety of

characteristics of information and explains how to choose the type of

information that will best meet your needs.

Scholarly and Popular Information

Scholarly information most often comes in the form of academic

journal articles and books. These types of resources are written by

scholars in a field of study and usually report on their original

research, experiments, theories, or studies to the scholarly

community. Since the authors of this type of information are

considered experts in their field, their credentials will usually be

published within the article or book. The language the authors use

when writing these resources is formal, technical, and specific to their

field. It might even include jargon that a person outside that field might

not understand. Scholarly articles and books usually include an

abstract, which is a brief summary of what the article discusses, a

bibliography with a list of resources, and sometimes charts or graphs

to illustrate their research.

Some, but not all, scholarly information is peer-reviewed. This means

that the information within these resources was evaluated, or vetted,

by other scholars within the same field to ensure that it is accurate and

suitable for publication. Scholarly, and especially peer-reviewed,

resources are considered of the highest quality and should be used

when conducting academic research.

Earlier in the module you were introduced to the threshold concept of

scholarship as conversation. This concept emphasizes the role of

scholars, which is to contribute to the goals and the debates within

their field of study. The “conversation” occurs when information

consumers, creators, and experts collaborate to determine meaning

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and explore new theories. For example, picture yourself at a party

where quite a few conversations are occurring at the same time. As

you choose to focus on one topic of conversation, you hear bits and

pieces of conversations from people with differing opinions and

arguments. You use the diverse arguments people make about the

same topic to form your own opinion. This is essentially what the

scholarly conversation is: different scholars and experts sharing their

ideas and research results to their communities through published

journal articles and books. Other scholars and experts read this

information, interpret it, and build on it to create new conversations or

advance existing ones.

As a student conducting research, you pick up only a few bits and

pieces of a scholarly conversation from a few scholarly sources.

These sources do not make up an entire scholarly work or encompass

all of the perspectives on the topic. Once you have a good sense of

the conversation, consider your own thoughts and feelings on the

differing perspectives as you relate this information to answering your

research question. Try viewing yourself as a budding researcher and

scholar, and seek to add your own voice to the conversation.

Students who are developing their abilities in the scholarship as

conversation threshold concept

 identify the contribution that particular articles, books, and other

scholarly pieces make to disciplinary knowledge.

 predict that a given scholarly work may not represent the only—

or even the -majority—perspective on an issue.

 recognize that they are often entering into the midst of a

scholarly conversation, not a finished conversation.

 suspend judgment on the value of a particular piece of

knowledge until the larger context for the scholarly conversation

is better understood.

 value user-generated content and critically evaluate contributions

made by others.

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 see themselves as contributors to scholarship rather than only

consumers of it (ACRL, 2015).

Popular information sources are considered nonscholarly. They are

generally found in newspapers and magazines, and they cover topics

of wide-ranging interests, usually intended to inform or entertain the

public. Journalists—who might or might not have expertise in the

field—author the information, using vocabulary that is familiar to the

general public. The articles usually have photographs, illustrations, or

advertisements in them. Before publication, an editorial staff reviews

articles under consideration for style and content. Popular articles are

usually quite brief and typically don’t include a bibliography or a

reference list. However, some magazines do provide considerably

researched articles and contain a reference list, and some Internet

news sources embed links to the scholarly studies they discuss.

Overall, popular resources are generally considered reliable, and

depending on your topic can be beneficial to your research. Examples

of popular information include daily print and online newspapers such

as the Los Angeles Times, weekly news magazines such as Time

magazine, and scientific magazines such as National Geographic.

Summary & Resources

Key Concepts

 Information literacy involves being able to recognize when

information is needed and then effectively and efficiently

locating, evaluating, and using that information to communicate

in a variety of settings.

 Information literacy is a critical skill you will need to develop to be

successful in school, in your career, and throughout your life.

Developing information literacy will set you on the path to

becoming a lifelong learner.

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 The four main skills needed to be information literate are critical

thinking, creative thinking, problem solving, and higher-order

thinking.

 The research process has five steps. The first step is recognizing

what information is needed and understanding the audience to

whom you will be presenting the information. This includes

formulating a research question. The second step is finding and

accessing the information you need to answer your research

question. The third step involves evaluating the information. The

fourth step is organizing the information you’ve gathered and

evaluated. The final step is effectively communicating the

information to your audience.

 The two main types of information are scholarly (which includes

peer-reviewed research) and popular.

 Information sources can be primary, secondary, or tertiary in

nature.

 Information sources are generally characterized as being

subjective or objective, and factual or analytical.

 Information is available in a variety of formats. Print resources

include books, reference texts, and periodicals. Electronic

resources include graphics and images, videos, podcasts,

scholarly e-journals, e-books, blogs, Google Scholar, wikis, and

social media.

Key Terms

analytical information

blog

creative thinking

critical thinking

factual information

format

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growth mindset

higher-order thinking

information literacy

lifelong learner

objective information

peer-reviewed

periodical

podcast

popular information

primary sources

problem solving

reference text

scholarly information

secondary sources

subjective information

tertiary sources

wiki