Econ paper

Focus on Multilingualism: A Study of Trilingual Writing Author(s): JASONE CENOZ and DURK GORTER Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 95, No. 3, Special Issue: Toward a Multilingual Approach in the Study of Multilingualism in School Contexts (Fall 2011), pp. 356-369 Published by: Wiley on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41262372 Accessed: 14-04-2016 02:40 UTC

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Focus on Multilingualism: A Study of Trilingual Writing JASONE CENOZ University of the Basque Country

Faculty of Education Department MIDE 70 Hiribidea Tolosa

20018 Donostia-San Sebastián

Basque Country, Spain Email: jasone. cenoz@ehu. es

DURK GORTER

University of the Basque Country Faculty of Education Department THE - IKERBASQUE 70 Hiribidea Tolosa

20018 Donostia-San Sebastián

Basque Country, Spain Email: d.gorter@ikerbasque. org

In this article, we analyze the relationship between studies in second language acquisition and studies in bilingualism as areas that have been traditionally ignored but which share some common perspectives. Then we look at new trends in both areas that are compatible with a holistic perspective in the study of multilingualism. Based on these trends, we propose "Focus on Multilingualism," an approach that looks at the whole linguistic repertoire of multilingual speakers and language learners and at the relationships between the languages when conduct- ing research, teaching, or assessing different languages. In the second part of the article, we report on the results of an exploratory study on the development of writing skills in three lan- guages: Basque, Spanish, and English. We explore different ways to look at the three languages and their interaction by focusing on the multilingual speaker and his or her languages rather than each of the specific languages in isolation. The results indicate that the languages are related to each other in different ways and that multilingual speakers develop their creativity in these language practices. We argue that by focusing on the different languages, we can gain new insights about the way languages are learned and used.

IN THIS ARTICLE, WE COMBINE DIFFERENT

perspectives in the study of second lan- guage acquisition (SLA) and bilingual- ism/multilingualism studies as a basis to propose "Focus on Multilingualism," a perspective for both research and teaching. First, we look at some common characteristics of research and

teaching, some new trends that bring together these two areas of applied linguistics, and the different languages being learned and used in school contexts.

Second, we follow with the section entitled "The

Study" in order to analyze whether the "Focus on Multilingualism" perspective can provide new information when compared to traditional ap- proaches. We report on an exploratory research

The Modern Language Journal, 95, iii, (2011) DOI: 10.1 lll/j.15404781.201 1.01206.x 0026-7902/ 1 1/356-369 $1 .50/0 ©201 1 The Modern Language Journal

study on writing skills in Basque, Spanish, and English in Basque schools. We look at the corre- lations among the scores in the three languages, multidirectionality in language transfer, common general writing skills, and language mixing in informal writing. Finally, we discuss pedagogical implications and propose topics for further re- search.

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND BILINGUALISM

Traditionally, studies on SLA and bilingualism have been considered separately. Whereas SLA has focused on the process of becoming bilingual, bilingualism looks at what it means to be bilin- gual (see also Block, 2003; Ortega, 2010; Valdés, 2005). SLA has addressed issues such as the role of different factors affecting the acquisition of second languages (e.g., age, motivation) and the development of phonetic, lexical, morphosyntac- tic, pragmatic, and discourse competence in a

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Jasone Cenoz and Durk Gorier

second language. The field has also looked at the effect of different types of instruction on SLA (see Doughty 8c Long, 2005). Bilingualism has paid at- tention to the psycholinguistic functioning of the mind when having two codes, the early acquisi- tion of two languages, or the cognitive outcomes of being bilingual. At the social and educational levels, the main focus has been on the provision and evaluation of bilingual education and on lan- guage policy in society (see Baker, 2006) .

In educational contexts, research on SLA

and research on bilingualism take different ap- proaches, but at the same time, they share some characteristics:

1. They have rarely gone beyond two lan- guages, although "SLA" and "bilingualism" are sometimes used as umbrella terms for additional

languages. 2. Competence in a second language and bilin-

gual competence have been measured from a monolingual perspective against the yardstick of the native speaker. In the case of SLA, the ref- erence would be the native speaker of the target language, and in the case of bilingualism, the ref- erence would be the native speakers of the two languages involved.

3. Codemixing and codeswitching have a strong tradition in the study of bilingualism from a sociolinguistic perspective (see Gardner-Chloros, 2009; Muysken, 2000). Multilinguals establish "soft boundaries" between their languages - that is, boundaries that are permeable and allow for interaction between the languages. In contrast, "hard boundaries" have been built between lan-

guages in school contexts, both in the case of sec- ond/foreign language acquisition and bilingual education. Some indicators of this separation are the association of one teacher to one language, or specific use of one classroom for a specific lan- guage. Even in the case of bilingual and multi- lingual schools, the syllabi for the different lan- guages are often independent and not integrated. This approach has been called "parallel monolin- gualism" (Heller, 1999, p. 271) or "two solitudes" (Cummins, 2005, p. 588).

These common characteristics of SLA and bilin-

gualism are widespread and generally accepted in different parts of the world, but some points have been contested since the late 1980s.

In the field of SLA, Cook (1995) proposed that second language (L2) users are fundamentally dif- ferent from first language (LI) users and should be examined in their own right. Because of the presence of more than one language in their repertoire, Cook argued that L2 users develop

357

a complex type of competence, which is qualita- tively different from the competence of monolin- gual speakers of a language (Cook, 1992). Cook proposed the notion of "multicompetence" to des- ignate a unique form of language competence that is not necessarily comparable to that of mono- linguals. Cook adopted a view of languages as dis- crete systems in his proposal of multicompetence and has been criticized for not paying enough at- tention to the role of context (see Hall, Cheng, & Carlson, 2006).

In the field of bilingualism, Grosjean (1985) criticized the monolingual view of bilingualism that he called the "fractional view." This view eval-

uates a bilingual as two monolinguals in one per- son. He proposed a bilingual (or holistic) view of bilingualism so that bilinguals are considered fully competent speaker-hearers who have a unique lin- guistic profile (Grosjean, 1989, 2008).

In recent years, new trends in SLA and in bilin- gualism theory and research have proven compat- ible with this holistic approach proposed by Cook and Grosjean. Taken together, these proposals go beyond two languages, highlight the characteris- tics of bilinguals and multilinguals as being dif- ferent from native speakers, and emphasize the interaction between their languages.

New Trends in SLA

In SLA, the focus on the language per se has shifted to an increasing interest in the learner, the communicative interaction, and the context

in which the interaction takes place. According to Dynamic Systems Theory, SLA can be under- stood as a complex, dynamic system in which all variables are interrelated and can influence one

another (De Bot, Lowie, & Verspoor, 2007; Larsen- Freeman, 1997). The context in which communi- cation takes place is crucial because a language is not a fixed code that is ready-made for users be- fore they start using it; rather, it is created, or at the very least assembled, from conventional units each time it is used (Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008) . As Herdina andjessner (2002) pointed out when referring to bilingualism or multilingual- ism, the development of a multilingual repertoire has characteristics such as nonlinearity, interde- pendence, and complexity.

Sociocultural and ecological approaches are also important trends in SLA research, which are compatible with Dynamic Systems Theory (van Lier, 2004). These approaches have gained ground since the publication of Firth and Wag- ner's article in 1997, in which they argue for the impossibility of analyzing SLA learners'

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358 The Modern Language Journal 95 (201 1)

performance in isolation from the context. As Kramsch and Whiteside (2007) pointed out, learners need to acquire the skills and compe- tences to be accepted as competent members of a community of practice; it is not enough to have the correct mental representations. When applied to multilingualism, ecological approaches look at interactions in multilingual environments as com- plex dynamic systems in which speakers shape the very context in which the language is learned and used (Kramsch, 2010).

In recent years, we have seen a significant in- crease in research involving the acquisition of third or additional languages (see Cenoz, in press). The main issue discussed in this research is the identification of the characteristics that dis-

tinguish SLA from the acquisition of additional languages (third language [L3], fourth language [L4], etc.). Even though the focus is often, as in the case of SLA, on the process of acquiring a spe- cific language, the identification of specific char- acteristics associated with additional languages is necessarily linked to the outcomes of being bilingual or multilingual. Therefore, bilingual- ism/multilingualism and third (or additional) language acquisition are brought closer together (see Aronin & Hufeisen, 2009). One of the out- comes of bilingualism/multilingualism often as- sociated with the acquisition of an additional lan- guage is the development of metalinguistic aware- ness, understood as the ability to reflect on lan- guage and to manipulate it (see also Bialystok, 2001). Bilinguals have been reported to have ad- vantages over monolinguals in some dimensions of metalinguistic awareness that demand high lev- els of control of attention (Bialystok, 2001 ; see also Jessner, 2006).

A related trend in applied linguistics is the extended use of English as a lingua franca and the role of the native speaker as a model in SLA (Canagarajah, 2007; Seidlhofer, 2007). Re- search in this area analyzes communication prac- tices among speakers of different languages; it brings together the use of English and bilingual- ism/multilingualism, and at the same time consid- ers multilingual competence as a different type of competence. The widespread use of English along with other languages calls into question the goal of achieving a level of competence similar to that of the monolingual native speaker of English. As Canagarajah (2007) pointed out, the competence of lingua franca speakers is distinct and "derives from their multilingual life" (p. 925).

These new trends in SLA (or in the acquisi- tion of additional languages) and applied linguis- tics are compatible with the findings reported in

neurolinguistics and psycholinguistics about the strong interaction between the languages used by multilingual speakers. For example, a strong level of activation of the different languages has been reported when speakers of three languages com- plete tasks in one of the languages (Dijkstra & Van Hell, 2003) . In a similar vein, when reviewing a number of studies on the multilingual lexicon, Singleton (2003) concluded that there is a "high degree of connectivity and dynamic interplay be- tween the LI mental lexicon and additional men-

tal lexicons" (p. 169).

New Trends in Bilingualism

Codeswitching has been considered "the most distinctive behaviour of the bilingual speaker; there is no better behavioural indicator to show

that a speaker is bilingual than when he or she is using two languages simultaneously in social inter- action" (Li Wei & Wu, 2009, p. 193). Multilinguals may mix or switch languages because they have a lexical gap and need a word from the other lan- guage they know, but they also mix or switch lan- guages in creative ways for different communica- tive functions. Multilinguals use the languages at their disposal as a resource in communication, and these practices contribute to the develop- ment of their multilingual and multicultural iden- tities (Kramsch & Whiteside, 2007). Codemixing and codeswitching practices are common from a very early age in the case of bilingual and trilin- gual children, and they are topic-related and af- fected by cultural and situational factors (Stavans & Swisher, 2006) . In fact, cross-linguistic processes are related to linguistic, psycholinguistic, and so- ciolinguistic factors and range from the trans- fer of one single element to codeswitching (see Gardner-Chloros, 2009; Muysken, 2000). Transfer from the LI into the L2 has traditionally been a central issue in SLA research. Traditionally, it was considered a deficient use of the target language due to the influence of the LI and was referred

to as "interference." Currently, this term is dis- credited because of its behavioristic connotations,

and "cross-linguistic influence" has more currency (Jarvis & Pavlenko, 2008) . As the study of transfer has focused on the L2, the influence of the LI

on the L2 has been the main type of transfer an- alyzed. Research studies have proven that cross- linguistic processes are more complex and that they can be multidirectional (Cook, 2003; Jarvis & Pavlenko, 2008) . Studies in third language ac- quisition have also reported other patterns and particularly that L3 learners are influenced both by their Lis and L2s (Cenoz, 2009; Clyne, 1997;

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Jasone Cenoz and Durk Gorter 359

De Angelis, 2007; Ringbom, 2007; Williams & Hammarberg, 1998).

Can transfer (or "cross-linguistic influence") really be distinguished from codeswitching and codemixing? By adopting a more holistic view that brings together SLA and bilingualism /multilingualism studies and takes into account all of the languages in the linguistic repertoire of the multilingual learner and user, transfer, codemixing, and codeswitching processes can be better represented as different positions along a continuum than as separate processes. Such studies show that the languages that are being learned and used are interrelated. As Garcia

(2008) explained, languages "are not fixed codes by themselves; they are fluid codes framed within social practices" (p. 32). Multilingual speakers have more resources available in their linguistic repertoire than monolingual speakers, and they use them to achieve their communication goals. As Block (2007) suggested, multilinguals do not seem to be semilingual, but hyperlingual.

The idea of mixing elements from different lan- guages is not considered acceptable by most re- searchers, teacher educators, and teachers. How- ever, some steps have been made in a different direction and the idea of using different lan- guages as a resource in bilingual/multilingual ed- ucational contexts has been proposed recently. Terms such as "translanguaging" (Williams, 2002; see also Garcia, 2008) or "flexible bilingualism" (Blackledge 8c Creese, 2010; Creese 8c Blackledge, 2010) refer to multilingual practices that use lan- guages as a resource without establishing clear-cut boundaries between the languages. Translanguag- ing refers to the combination of two or more languages in a systematic way within the same learning activity. Baker (2006) highlighted that the alternation of languages needs to be the re- sult of "strategic classroom language planning" (p. 297), not just allowing for codeswitching in the classroom. According to Williams (2002), translanguaging "is a natural way of developing and strengthening both languages whilst simulta- neously gaining a deeper understanding" (p. 29). The idea of translanguaging is appealing because it establishes a bridge between the way languages are used by bilinguals and multilinguals in every- day communication and the teaching and learn- ing of languages at school. However, it is still too early to determine the effect of these pedagogi- cal practices of combining different languages on bilingual and multilingual proficiency.

Within multilingual education, another recent trend is to develop an integrated curriculum in- cluding the different languages. As Elorza and

Muñoa (2008) explained, an integrated curricu- lum "brings together complementary facets of the learning processes, while contrasting the specific linguistic aspects of each language. At the same time it transfers, applies, and generalizes what has been learned in one language to the others" (p. 91). An integrated curriculum can offer the best conditions to develop metalinguistic aware- ness and enhance the acquisition of different lan- guages.

Another trend that combines two languages in the same conversation is receptive multilingualism. This takes place when interlocutors use their re- spective Lis while speaking to each other (Ten Thije 8c Zeevaert, 2007). Receptive multilingual- ism is part of the tradition of multilingual com- munication and has been promoted as a way to increase mobility and improve communication among European citizens, but it is not common in school contexts yet.

These practices go against the conventions in most school contexts, but as it has already been said, they are characteristic of interaction among multilingual speakers. These practices can also be found in the linguistic landscape, particularly in the case of commercial signs that combine lan- guages not always to convey meaning but often to increase their communicative effect (see Cenoz 8c Gorter, 2008). However, as Cenoz, Gorter, and Aiestaran (2010) reported, the use of two or more languages in signs inside school buildings is rather exceptional. Even in the case of schools that aim at developing multilingual competence, languages tend to be separated.

Outside the school, the same students who are

taught to forget about the other languages in their repertoire and to focus on one language at a time often engage in multilingual practices. Their out-of-school practices combine elements from different languages, and also from other semi- otic elements (icons, fonts, sounds, and visuals) when interacting with their peers in social media contexts.

Focus on Multilingualism

So far we have seen that new trends in re-

search on SLA and bilingualism/multilingualism are moving away from the idea of considering one language at a time as if they were stored in separate containers, toward focusing on the whole individual and his or her social repertoire and highlighting the connections between the languages. Interesting theoretical advances pro- pose a more holistic view of the languages used and being learned so that all of the languages

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360 The Modern Language Journal 95 (2011)

FIGURE 1

Traditional Approach and "Focus on Multilingualism"

spoken by multilingual speakers and/or taught at school are taken into account. Furthermore,

the relationship between these languages can be considered both in language learning and lan- guage use. As we have already seen, there are pointers in the same direction in neurolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and sociolinguistics. However, a true focus on multilingualism when conduct- ing research on SLA (or the acquisition of ad- ditional languages) and/or in the study of bilin- gualism/multilingualism is not yet common. For example, even though studies that focus on third language acquisition bring together the outcomes of bilingualism and the acquisition of an addi- tional language, they rarely adopt a genuine mul- tilingual perspective and merely take bilingualism as one of the independent variables when analyz- ing the process of L3 acquisition (see Cenoz, 2009, for a review) . This is the canonical "monolingual focus" that follows the SLA tradition.

In contrast to these traditional approaches, "Fo- cus on Multilingualism" looks at the whole lin- guistic repertoire and the relationships between the languages when conducting research, teach- ing, or assessing different languages. The dif- ference between the traditional approach (sepa- rated circles) and the "Focus on Multilingualism" approach (intersecting circles) can be seen in Figure 1.

Both approaches aim at increasing competen- cies in different languages, albeit through a dif- ferent conceptualization. Instead of considering each language as a separate entity, "Focus on Mul- tilingualism" looks at the different languages as a whole and explores their commonalities. It cre- ates connections between the languages being learned at school by using translanguaging as a pedagogical strategy and highlights the relation- ships between languages by creating specific activ- ities so as to enhance metalinguistic awareness.

We argue that "Focus on Multilingualism" can provide a different perspective both in second lan-

guage acquisition research and in multilingual ed- ucation. In the case of SLA, by looking at the dif- ferent languages and their interactions and adopt- ing a holistic perspective, we look at second lan- guage acquisition in its complexity, as suggested in Complex Systems Theory or Dynamic Systems Theory (de Bot et al., 2007; Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008). When a multilingual learner is acquiring languages, a holistic approach such as "Focus on Multilingualism" can show how the dif- ferent subsystems are connected across the lan- guages in their development and the way they support each other. In this way, the interactions between the systems and their dynamics can be examined. For example, we can observe the effect that learning a specific strategy in writing through instruction in one of the languages has on the other languages. Thus, we could identify connected growers, understood as subsystems that support each other not only within a specific language as explained by De Bot et al. (2007) but also among the different languages. As a result, the languages involved could reinforce each other and teaching could be more targeted and effective.

Furthermore, by taking into account the differ- ent languages, "Focus on Multilingualism" looks at the acquisition and use of second and addi- tional languages in a social context. Multilingual speakers acquire and use their languages while engaging in language practices that are shaped by the environment. In fact, multilingual speak- ers use their resources and navigate between lan- guages in real communication (see also Kramsch, 2006).

Although multilingual schools aim at multilin- gualism as an outcome, their approach to multi- lingualism often has limitations because it does not reinforce the relationship between the lan- guages. "Focus on Multilingualism" looks at the interaction among languages and therefore it is closer to the way languages are acquired and used. It looks at multilingual learners and users as

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Jasone Cenoz andDurk Gorter 361

different and not comparable to monolingual na- tive speakers. Multilingual learners and users can use their different languages as a resource and can have other multilingual speakers as a refer- ence. "Focus on Multilingualism" is potentially a more efficient way to acquire languages than the traditional approach for at least two reasons. First, as we have seen, it can use "connected grow- ers" across languages, enabling a more efficient use of resources. This could be achieved by es- tablishing integrated curricula for the languages (Elorza & Muñoa, 2008). Second, by establishing soft boundaries between languages that allow for codemixing and translanguaging, learners will be involved in language practices that are natural among multilingual speakers.

A first step when adopting "Focus on Multilin- gualism" in research on the acquisition of lan- guages in multilingual education is to analyze its potential contribution compared to a more tradi- tional approach. In the next section we report on an exploratory study that examines how such an approach contributes to the acquisition of multi- lingualism in writing. The study aims at answering the following question: Does a "Focus on Multilin- gualism" perspective based on written production in three languages provide different information about multilingual learners than a monolingual perspective?

THE STUDY

In this exploratory study, first we will use a con- ventional approach by evaluating the languages separately and then we will look at their relation- ships and go into more direct comparisons and consider hybrid texts. In this study, we look at written production in Basque, Spanish, and En- glish. This study was carried out in Basque schools, which can be regarded as a real laboratory of mul- tilingualism, including three or four languages in the curriculum used as school subjects and lan- guages of instruction and bringing together situa- tions of minority language education, immersion education, and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL).

Participants

Participants were 165 secondary school stu- dents (77 male; 88 female) who had Basque and/or Spanish as their LI and lived in the Basque Country (Spain). According to the background questionnaire, Basque was the LI for 31% of the students, Spanish was the LI for 46% of the stu- dents, and the rest of the students, 23%, had

both Basque and Spanish as their Lis. The mean age for the participants was 14.6 years. They all had Basque as the language of instruction and they also studied Spanish and English as school subjects. Although Basque is becoming the pre- ferred language of instruction in some areas of the Basque Country, Spanish is the majority language at the community level, and the use of Basque as the language of instruction does not prevent students from acquiring similar levels of profi- ciency in Spanish as students who learn through the medium of Spanish (Cenoz, 2009) . English is introduced as a school subject from kindergarten, but only for a limited number of sessions (2-4 hours per week) , and students do not have much exposure to English outside the school. Some chil- dren study French as an L4.

Instruments and Procedure

Participants completed a background question- naire that included questions on the knowledge and use of Basque in their social networks. They wrote three compositions at school - one in each of the three languages analyzed: Basque, Span- ish, and English. Students were given a picture for each language and were instructed to write a composition in each language on different days. The instructions in all three cases were as follows:

Please descube in your own words what you see in the picture, or tell a story about the people in the picture. They were asked to write approximately 250 words in each of the languages. The compo- sitions were on different topics for the three lan- guages, but they had a similar format. The compo- sitions were analyzed by using the CLAN program (Computerized Language Analysis) following the CHAT (Codes for the Human Analysis of Tran- scripts) and LIDES (Language Interaction Data Exchange System) coding systems (LIPPS Group, 2000; MacWhinney, 2000). As part of the data collection of this study, we also obtained a few samples of informal communication on Tuenti, the Spanish-based social network similar to Face- book. These texts are examples of natural in- teraction outside school without any instructions about the languages to be used, which is different from the context in which the compositions were written.

Results

To answer our research question, we conducted four different analyses. All of them had a "Focus on Multilingualism" approach and looked at the production in the three languages at the same

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362 The Modern Language Journal 95 (2011)

TABLE 1

Scores of Compositions in Basque, Spanish, and English

Basque Spanish English

Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Content 26.76 (2.34) 26.08 (2.29) 22.24 (3.78) (max = 30) Organization 18.02 (1.67) 17.40 (1.58) 15.02 (3.04) (max = 30) Grammar 21.04 (2.14) 20.60 (1.96) 15.28 (3.72) (max = 30) Vocabulary 17.34 (1.60) 17.15 (1.59) 12.82 (2.88) (max = 30) Mechanics 4.44(0.63) 4.23(0.71) 3.47(1.00) (max = 30) Total 87.60 (6.68) 85.49 (6.90) 68.83 (12.62)

time. The analyses took into account composi- tion scores, multidirectionality in language trans- fer, general writing skills, and language mixing in informal writing.

COMPOSITION SCORES

The first step was to investigate the possible re- lationship among the compositions in the three languages by looking at the scores achieved in dif- ferent dimensions of writing. The compositions were graded according to the scales proposed by Jacobs, Zingraf, Wormuth, Hartfiel, and Hughey (1981). This system uses scales adding up to 100 points and distributed as follows: content (30), organization (20), vocabulary (20), language use (25), and mechanics (5). Once the results of the tests were codified, analyses were conducted by using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sci- ences). The scores obtained in the compositions in the three languages can be seen in Table 1, and the correlations between the different dimen-

sions measured and the total scores can be seen in

Table 2.

The results of the correlation analysis indi- cate that there are statistically significant corre- lations between each pair of languages for most dimensions. In fact, with the exception of "orga- nization," all of the other correlations are sig- nificant. At the same time, there is no clear

pattern indicating that the correlations between two specific languages are much stronger than between other pairs of languages. This is very in- teresting, taking into account the combination of languages. English is a Germanic language, Spanish is a Romance language, and Basque is a non-Indo-European language of unknown origin.

TABLE 2

Correlations Among Compositions in Basque, Spanish, and English

Basque Basque Spanish and and and

Spanish English English

Content .25* .31** .53**

Organization .13 .12 .31** Grammar .24* .41** .28*

Vocabulary .21* .42** .30** Mechanics .46** .20* .42** Total .36** .47** .47**

*p < .05. **/?< .01.

The grammar of Basque is completely different from the grammars of English and Spanish, but our results indicate that most of the correlations

are significant. After centuries of contact between Basque and Spanish, the vocabulary of these two languages has elements in common, but the high- est correlations in vocabulary correspond to the correlations between Basque and English.

These results indicate that the different dimen-

sions evaluated in the three languages (content, structure, vocabulary, grammar, and mechanics) are related to each other. The results indicate

that multilingual speakers share some skills across their different languages. Students with a high score in mechanics or vocabulary in one of the languages would also obtain good results in the other languages and vice versa. In the case of writ- ing skills, the relationship between the languages used by multilinguals has been pointed out in pre- vious research (see Sagasta, 2003) .

Multidirectionality in Language Transfer

As we have already seen, cross-linguistic influ- ence can take part in different directions. When analyzing the compositions, we observed that mul- tilingual learners use their languages in multiple directions and do not transfer only from the LI to the L2.

The following examples are indicative of the different directions. The numbers in parenthesis refer to the participants' IDs.

1. Transfer from the LI (Spanish) to the L3 (English) At the right, it is the bathroom, the lavadora for the clothes, and the bath to the peoples of the house. (122) In this case, a noun, lavadora 'washing machine,' is transferred from the LI to the L3. This is a

common type of transfer identified in studies on third language acquisition.

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Jasone Cenoz and Durk Gorier 363

2. Transfer from the L2 (Basque) to the L3 (English) On the chidrens room Гт looked a four children, one fish, a lot of toys for example a montatzeko pieces. (130) In this case, the learner uses her L2 to transfer a

verb, montatzeko 'to put together,' from the L2 to the L3. This is also a common type of transfer in L3 acquisition.

3. Transfer from the LI (Spanish) to the L2 (Basque) Parkean umeak jolasten daude eta tabernan izozkiak ezkatzen daude gero jendea eguzkia hartzen daude eta jaten. (5) 'Children are playing in the park and ordering ice creams in the bar then people are sunbathing and eating.'

This is the most typical type of transfer studied in SLA (i.e., from the LI to the L2). In this case, it is a direct translation from Spanish están pidiendo 'are ordering' into Basque, instead of using the Basque eskatzen ari dira.

4. Transfer from Basque (LI) to Spanish (L2) En el corral de alado ahí más caballos con sus corceles,

junto a ellos se encuentran las vacas con sus txekorras. (100) 'On the farm next to it there are more horses with

their steeds, next to them there are cows with their calves.'

This is also transfer from the LI to the L2. The

term used in Basque is txekorras instead of the Spanish terneras 'calves.' In this case, the learner has replaced the Basque plural marker k with the Spanish morpheme s, writing txekorras instead of txekorraL

5. Transfer from Basque (L2) to Spanish (LI) . . . una cabra que se va a caer por una chirristra ( 1 54)

'. . . a goat that is going to fall down the slide'

In this case, a Spanish LI speaker uses the Basque term chirristra 'slide' instead of the Span- ish tobogán. The Basque word follows Span- ish spelling conventions {chirristra)', the Basque spelling would be txirristra. This Basque word is very commonly used in the Spanish of the Basque Country.

6. Transfer from Spanish (L2) to Basque (LI) . . . aldi berean, gurasoak deskantsatzen duten bitartean (35)

'. . . at the same time, while the parents are resting'

This is also an example from L2 influence on the LI, but in this case, from Spanish to Basque. The word deskansatzen comes from the Spanish descansar 'to rest,' and it is used instead of the

Basque atsedenaldia hartzen. This type of cross- linguistic influence from the dominant language (Spanish) to the lesser used language (Basque) is very common in Basque.

7. Transfer from the L3 (English) to the L2 (Basque) Behe eskuin aldean emakume batzuen artean ume

batzuk daude picnic bat egiten. (7) 'On the right of the cows there are some children having a picnic among some women.' The word picnic is an English loanword, quite common in Spanish and Basque.

8. Transfer from L3 (English) to LI (Basque) Tennisean jolastu dugu. (35) 'We played tennis.'

In this example, there seems to be an influ- ence of English spelling when writing in Basque (tennisean instead of tenisean). Language transfer from English into Basque and Spanish was very limited in the data, perhaps because the learners are less proficient in English than in the other languages. Their limited exposure to English out- side of school does not favor the use of English, either.

These examples clearly indicate that cross- linguistic influence is a multidirectional phe- nomenon that is not limited to transferring from the LI to the L2. In the specific setting in which these compositions were written, students tend to use terms or structures from other languages when they have difficulties; transfer from the LI and L2 into the L3 is the most common type be- cause of their limitations with English. The exam- ples also show that in some cases, learners use a term from another language not only because of difficulties but because they find the term matches their communicative intent better or because it is

commonly used by other speakers in a bilingual context. One way or another, multilingual speak- ers use the resources in their repertoire for com- municative purposes.

General Writing Strategies

A qualitative analysis of the same compositions confirms the relationship among the three lan- guages. This analysis shows that individual stu- dents tend to use the same general strategy to approach the task. For example, some students prefer to write a story, and they do so in the three languages, whereas others prefer to write a de- scription of each of the pictures. It is not common for the same student to write a story in Spanish and a description in Basque or English. In general, the

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364 The Modern Language Journal 95 (201 1)

quality of the compositions is weaker in English, their L3.

The similar approach multilingual students have when they write in each of the languages can be seen in the following examples.

Student 7 speaks Spanish at home. He has cho- sen to write a description, rather than a story, of what he sees in the three pictures. When the three descriptions are compared, we can see that he shows a preference for colors that is not found so clearly in other compositions.

EXAMPLE 9

English

At the third floor there are a pink room and a yellow room. At the pink one there are pillows and teddys also. Is a bed and a armary violet. At the yellow there are a lot of box, there is a girl. In the floor is a carpet and at one whole is a green door.

Spanish

. . . puedo ver a pequeñas familias de caballos, son de colores muy diferentes; gris, marrón, amarillo . . . Una

niña, que está enfrente de unas botas negras que hay en la pared . . .

'. . . I can see small families of horses, they are of different colours, grey, brown, yellow ... A girl who is facing some black boots that are against the wall

Basque

. . . baloi gorri batekin, beste bat mangito laranja batzukjantzita dituela jolasean dago, Beherago mahai bat dago, egurrezkoa, sombrila hoň bat duela alboan eta toalla gorria azpian.

'. . . with a red ball, another one wearing orange rings is playing. Below there is a wooden table, and it has a yellow sunshade next to it and a red towel under it.'

Another example can be seen in the case of Student 105, who speaks Basque at home. She has chosen to write a story and starts her three compositions by focusing on age, birthdays, or celebrations.

EXAMPLE 10

English

Like every year, my parents are going to organ- ise their aniversary celebration. It is a very special time... (TÕ3)

Spanish

Recuerdo perfectamente aquel verano que cumplí los siete años.

'I remember very well that summer when I turned seven.'

Basque

Egun berezia izan zen, berezia eta bakarra. Ez dut sekula ahaztuko bederatzi urte nitueneko uda hura.

'It was a special day, special and singular. I will never forget the summer I turned nine.'

A third example of similar ways to approach the writing task in the three languages can be found in the case of Student 10, who speaks Spanish at home and who shows a preference for location when describing the pictures in the three lan- guages. In the case of Spanish and Basque, her stronger languages, she also announces what she is going to describe.

EXAMPLE 11

English

This house have three floors. In the first floor at

the right side is the kitchen . . . In the left is the living room . . . At the meadle of this two rooms is the hall . . . In the second room at the left is a room . . . In the meadle of this two rooms is a corridor . . .

Spanish

En este texto voy a hacer una descripción del dibujo de arriba, que esta dividido en siete partes bien difer- enciadas por vallas. La primera parte que está abajo y a la hizquierda . . . La segunda parcela, que está sep- arada por la anterior con una valla de rijilla . . . A la derecha de esta parte . . . Mas arriba hay otra parcela ocupada por las gallinas que comen del suelo.

'In this text I'll give a description of the picture above, which is divided into seven distinct parts by fences. The first part is on the bottom on the left . . . The second part, which is separated from the previous one by a mesh fence ... To the right of this part ... A bit higher there is another part occupied by hens that eat from the ground.'

Basque

Testu honetan pantano honen deskribapena eg- ingo dut. Irudiaren behekaldean ezkerrean familia bat dago. Mahaiaren ezkerrean emakume bat dago toailan etzanda lotan. Beherago manta batean bi ume daude jaten zestan eta izozkailuan dagoen janaria.

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Jasone Cenoz and Durk Gorier 365

Eskubirantz emakume beltzarantz bat dago eguzkia hartzen, eta eskubirago bi ume . . . Irudiaren eskubiko beheko erpinean bi ume . . .

'In this text I'll give a description of this reser- voir. On the left bottom side of the picture there is a family. On the left of the table there is a woman sleeping on a towel. Further down there are two children eating the food that is in the basket and in the fridge. To the right, there is a dark woman sunbathing, and more to the right there are two children. On the further right end on the bottom two children

These examples show that multilingual learn- ers use similar strategies and focus on the same themes in writing a composition in three lan- guages. These examples and the correlations in content shown in Table 2 point in the same direc- tion, suggesting that there is an underlying com- mon multilingual strategy that is then produced in three languages. Obviously, it is the same person writing in different languages, and each person has developed writing competencies that can be shared across languages. By looking at the three languages, the idea of the learner as a multilingual person using different languages is much more evident than if we focus on only one of the lan- guages.

Language Mixing in Informal Writing

The next point in our analysis was to explore the way multilingual speakers can use their total linguistic repertoire for communicative purposes in a more informal context. To accomplish this, we collected some extracts from interaction on

the social networking site Tuenti (similar to Face- book,). This type of writing, a rather new genre, is best characterized by combining the written con- ventions and other notational forms with the spo- ken languages, making allowances that no other communicative platforms make. These extracts are merely examples collected as homework, to see how languages were used in informal con- texts. They can only be regarded as indicators of a phenomenon to be further explored. In the fol- lowing example, we can see two 15-year-old boys discussing how to write a composition. M is asking for help. The main language in the interaction is Spanish, but the composition must be written in Basque, the main school language. The students also use some English in the interaction, and in some cases, it is not clear to which language some items (i.e., jaj, hahaha) belong.

EXAMPLE 12

M: me ayudas con la carta ? y en serio como pongo al principio ?

'Can you help me with the letter? Seriously how do I start?'

H: sqeya t e dicho 'I already told you' M: klase maitia: 1 1 urte hauetan . . . y luego ? 'Dear class: in these 11 years . . . and then?' H: izan zarete ikaragarriak beti egon zarete hor larri nebilenean eta beti apollatu zenidazuten bainan orain etorri da denbora aguresatea nire bizitza orain Kenian pasako dudalako 'You have been great, you have always been there when I needed you and you have always supported me but now the time has come to say goodbye, I will spend my life in Kenya now' M: pero asi no llego a 200 hitz ni de coña 'but there is no way I get to 200 words like this' H: posible 50% si pero porqe no lo hiciste ay eri o la semana pasada ? 'perhaps 50% but why didn't you do it yesterday? Or last week?'

M: pues xq no apetecia jaj T didn't feel like it, jaj' H.ya 'Okay' M: e nose de ke scribir lo de la despedida no me da para 200 hitzas ni d koña y lo de scribir a un famoso . . . n mola jaj 'I don't know what to write about, the goodbye does not get to 200 words at all and to write about a famous person, I don't like it' H: noo eso no escrib a uno d tu clase

'not that, write to one in your class' M: me escribes una cartai Jaj aja 'Can you write the letter for me? Hahaha' H: muaaajabea 'muaaajabea' M: ai nidjelp 'I need help' H: i know pero ya te dicho todo 'I know but I have told you everything' M: pero noseeeeeeee eske no se me okurre nada tio aver helllp helpjelp 'but I don't know I cannot think of anything man, let's see help help help'

This interaction shows how multilinguals mix languages and create a hybrid text combining not only the three languages but also mixing lan- guages in other ways, as well. Basque (underlined in the text) is the language of the task and Span- ish the main language of interaction. Basque and Spanish are used alternately in different utter- ances but are also mixed in some utterances, as in when M says no me da para 200 hitzas, using the Basque word hitzak (with the Spanish plu- ral marker 's,' 'hitzas') instead of the Spanish palabras 'words.' The Spanish-derived apollatu

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366 The Modern Language Journal 95 (2011)

(from apoyar 'to support') is used instead of la- gundu in a Basque utterance. English and Spanish are also mixed in the last two utterances. These

multilingual speakers are navigating among lan- guages, and this switching between languages is part of their multilingual identity (see also Cana- garajah, Li Wei, and Shohamy, all in this issue).

Apart from mixing languages, this text uses other resources for communication purposes: (a) spelling an English utterance using Spanish spelling conventions: ai nid jelp. T need help'; (b) using the abbreviated, nonstandard spellings common in social media: xq sqe ya t e dicho in- stead of porque, es que ya te he dicho 'because I have already told you' (this type of spelling is not used in Basque because Basque is the language used in the task M has to give to his teacher. It is interesting to see how the functions of the two lan- guages are distinguished); and (c) using alternate spellings: helllp help jelp 'help,' or repeating vow- els: noseeeeeeee (instead of no se). These are ways for M to emphasize that he really needs help from H.

These multilingual students are using not only different languages but also different modes of communication. The development of multimedia technology, communication channels, and me- dia has encouraged multimodal literacy, which is based on the affordances provided by gesture, sound, visuals, and other semiotic symbols, in- cluding, but not limited to, language. Messages created in social media contexts are enhanced

by different colors, fonts, and symbols in ad- dition to actual words. These other modalities

are not usually seen in school contexts. An ex- ception we found in our data was the following utterance:

This is happy © family!! (1 7) This is an example of a symbol integrated in the

text, a common practice when secondary school students communicate among themselves. This is the only such case in the compositions but shows that new literacy practices occasionally make their way into the school.

DISCUSSION

The four steps taken in this exploratory study clearly show that "Focus on Multilingualism" as a research approach offers a different perspec- tive from the traditional focus on one language at a time. Traditionally, the multilingual person's competence in one language has been compared to the ideal native speaker of that language. "Fo- cus on Multilingualism" is an approach that allows us to look at the different languages of the mul-

tilingual at the same time instead of separately. It provides a vision of the complexity of the re- lationships among the languages, their process- ing, and the existing links between them. By tak- ing this approach, the focus is the multilingual person communicating in three languages rather than one of the languages in isolation. A multilin- gual person can have similar strengths and weak- nesses in different dimensions of writing (con- tent, structure, etc.) and therefore uses similar general strategies when facing the task of writ- ing a composition independently of the language used for each of the compositions. The examples analyzed here suggest that multilinguals establish "soft boundaries" between languages, even in the case of written language, and they take the el- ements they need from other languages. These elements are sometimes needed when students

face difficulties because they do not know a spe- cific word or structure in the target language. In other cases, the use of a different language can be related to other factors. Multilingual speakers may find a term or expression more appropriate to convey their communicative intent in one lan- guage than in others. Using other languages can also be related to attitudes or perceptions of the different languages. For example, many Spanish speakers in the Basque Country would use the Basque words aita 'father' and ama 'mother' be- cause they are seen as more affective. When some speakers use terms in English, it can be because they want to sound more modern or cosmopoli- tan. The analyses of the compositions clearly show that the other languages of the multilingual per- son can no longer be ignored. A multilingual person has some specific characteristics that are different from those of a monolingual (see also Cook, 2003; Grosjean, 2008). These differences can be seen more clearly by going beyond two languages because more complex interaction pat- terns emerge when three or more languages are considered than when only the relationship be- tween two languages is analyzed.

The approach "Focus on Multilingualism" pro- vides a better picture of the way languages are acquired, de Bot et al. (2007) discuss Dynamic System Theory as an approach to SLA and con- clude that it is important to discover "which sub- systems are precursors of other sub-systems and which sub-systems are connected growers" (p. 19) . Connected growers need fewer resources because they support each other's growth. The exploratory study discussed here shows that the approach "Fo- cus on Multilingualism" can identify similar pat- terns in writing skills in three languages and, therefore, can potentially help to identify these

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Jasone Cenoz and Durk Gorter 367

connected growers. As de Bot et al. pointed out, this identification can have clear implications for language teaching.

The approach "Focus on Multilingualism" also highlights the need to look at real literacy prac- tices that include translanguaging, codemixing, and codeswitching (see Garcia, Sylvan, 8c Witt, this issue; Li Wei, this issue). These are com-

mon practices among multilinguals and should be considered in research on the acquisition of L2 or additional languages. Furthermore, multi- lingual speakers can improve their achievement when these practices are allowed. As Hornberger (2005) pointed out, "bi/multilingual learning is maximized when they are allowed and enabled to draw from across all their existing language skills" (p. 607).

There is a need to bridge the gap between out- of-school multilingual and multimodal practices and formal school practices. As Block (2007) in- dicated, "there is a need for teachers to draw on

the considerable language resources that such stu- dents bring with them to class" (p. 80). In the case of multilingualism, one of these resources is the ability to combine different languages in commu- nication. However, languages are very often sep- arated in school contexts and there is a need to

go into what Creese and Blackledge (2010) called "flexible bilingual pedagogy" (p. 112), with per- meable boundaries between languages. The tradi- tional strategy of separating languages and using only the target language in a class does not allow multilinguals to use a powerful resource in com- munication (see also Macaro, 2006; Li Wei & Wu, 2009).

"Focus on Multilingualism" considers that if multilinguals have some special characteristics when learning and using languages, monolingual native speakers of each of the languages they speak cannot be the appropriate reference. This implies that the goal in multilingual education should be to behave as a competent multilingual speaker. Another implication for school contexts is the need to integrate the curricula of the dif- ferent languages so as to trigger the benefits of being multilingual. Taking into account that re- sources for processing languages are limited and that time devoted to language learning at school is also limited, it is desirable to benefit from con-

nected growers so that what is learned in one language can be easily transferred to other lan- guages. By integrating the curricula of the differ- ent languages, these connections are more likely to be activated.

In this article, we argue that the approach "Fo- cus on Multilingualism" can provide new insights

in the study of multilingualism. When applied to three languages, this approach can be repre- sented as the intersecting circles in Figure 1. "Fo- cus on Multilingualism" looks at cross-linguistic influence phenomena (including transfer and codeswitching) that can be represented by the intersection of the three circles. However, the

shared writing strategies reported here indicate that the influence among languages goes beyond these intersections. Multilingual individuals are not three or four different people with differ- ent strategies in each of their languages; rather, they are speakers who use their resources when communicating with monolingual and multilin- gual interlocutors. The boundaries between their languages are permeable and the interaction can potentially affect the whole circles, not only the intersections. There can be multidirectional pat- terns of interaction among the languages and not only in the case of transfer phenomena but also at the cognitive level. The data reported in this ar- ticle are exploratory, but they suggest that the ap- proach "Focus on Multilingualism" can contribute to our understanding of the complexity and the dynamics of multilingualism, particularly when looking at the way several languages are acquired and used in multilingual educational contexts.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was carried out with the assistance of

the research grant EDU2009-11601 from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Technology and the Basque Gov- ernment funding for the research group "Donostia Re- search on Education and Multilingualism" (DREAM).

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Wiley-Blackwell's Chinese Scholars Network is a resource for scholars, academics, and researchers in China who would like to publish their work in English language journals. The Network was established in 2010 by Wiley-Blackwell for the purpose of facilitating an international academic conversation and increasing the global profile of Asian scholarship in the social sciences.

The Network includes a range of useful tools for publishing abroad. Among these resources are online videos of seminars and author interviews, links to translation services, podcasts about the process of academic journal publishing, and a question forum with expert answers from experienced professionals.

Additionally, the Network features helpful subject-specific information for authors specializing in the areas of Business Management, Economics, Education, Finance, Geography, Psychology, and Urban Studies. Here you will find tips, guides, and advice of great use to the large and growing body of Chinese researchers in the Social Sciences and journal editors in the field.

Source: http://www.weilichubanxuezhe.com/about.htm

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