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The Triumph
of the Bourgeoisie
1830–1871

Triumph of the Bourgeoise

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The “bourgeoisie" is a social class characterized by their ownership of capital, and their related culture. The terms "bourgeois" (masculine) and "bourgeoise" (feminine) culturally identify the man or woman who is a member of the wealthiest social class of a given society.
The American and French Revolutions seem to promise political power to the disenfranchised and the Industrial Revolution offered hope for a higher standard of living for the oppressed, but these expectations remained largely unfulfilled in Europe.
Benefits were reaped mainly by one group, the bourgeoise, and left behind was the new class created by the industrial revolution, the proletariat, or working class.

Response to Inequality

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Faced with the period’s unequal social conditions, many urban workers joined by frustrated members of the other classes, acted out their frustration through direct political action and social movements. They demanded universal suffrage and a fairer distribution of power and wealth.
Rejecting the creed of the bourgeoise, the disillusioned set forth the ideals of socialism and successive waves of revolutionary uprisings only resulted in limited change by the ruling elites and social resentment of injustice continued.
By mid-century, realism had replaced romanticism, as the leading artistic style, reflecting the new social and political order by focusing on ordinary people and the “heroism of everyday life.”
Traditional beliefs were challenged by such scientific discoveries as Darwin’s theory of evolution; Pasteur’s germ theory of disease, and the invention of the camera.

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The Age of the Bourgeoisie

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Liberalism and Nationalism

The twin forces of liberalism and nationalism drove many of the period’s events. Liberalism, that individuals should be free from external control (free speech, religious toleration, voting rights for property owners) resonated with the bourgeois class’s need to liberate itself from the control of aristocratic forces.
However, liberalism also promoted “laissez-faire” economics, which allowed the wealthy class to enrich themselves at the expense of the working classes.
In contrast nationalism emphasized cooperation among all of a country’s people who shared a common language and heritage. Sometimes those embraced republican and democratic ideas, at other times it was more militant and ethnocentric.

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Europe after the Congress of Vienna, 1815

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Liberalism and Nationalism

In response to the repressive politics imposed by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 there were the Revolutions of 1830 in France, Belgium, and Poland and the Revolutions of 1848 across much of Europe (France, Germany, Italy, Ireland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark).
These liberal forces were responding to nationalistic goals and dissatisfaction with the economy and unemployment. However, the conservative powers rallied to defeat the generally disorganized revolutionaries and reclaimed their power.
Conservative regimes turned to “Realpolitik” (power policies) using strong and efficient armies and short fierce wars to resolve any problems that arose. Otto von Bismarck, prime minister of Prussia, mocked the failure of liberal parliamentary reforms and asserted that his country’s fate would not be settled with speeches but with “blood and iron.”

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Limited Reform in France and Great Britain

France and Great Britain saw limited reform. Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, the nephew of the French emperor, became Napoleon III by appealing to both the bourgeoisie and the working class.
Napoleon III ruled as a benign despot supported by a growing middle class and expanding industrial base and providing the poor with social services and allowing most urban workers and farmers to maintain a decent standard of living.
In England, under Queen Victoria, civil rights were gradually expanded giving more and more working class males the right to vote. Great Britain reached its apex of power of economic power and prestige, although the suffering of the working class as a result of the Industrial Revolution remained severe.

Franz Xaver Winterhalter, “Queen Victoria and Family” (1846)

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European Affairs in the Grip of Realpolitik

In the German-speaking states, liberalism was discarded in favor of militant nationalism. William I of Prussia and Bismarck used the fierce Prussian army and deft diplomacy to form the scattered German states into a single empire in 1871.
Germany than embarked on the Franco-Prussian War, humiliating France and planting the seeds that lead to the First World.
In 1861 the various states in Italy were unified after driving out the Austrians and Spanish forces. Giuseppe Garibaldi and his “red shirts” were instrumental in helping Italy to unite under King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy.

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Civil War in the United States

The unresolved issue of slavery in the southern states caused the United States to descend into Civil War over the fate of four million black in slavery.
After the election of Abraham Lincoln as president, eleven southern states seceded from the Union resulting in a war that would last over four years and cost the lives of over 620,000 Union and Confederate soldiers.
The defeat of the Confederacy preserved the Union and the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution outlawed the scourge of slavery.
The 14th Amendment granted equality to all citizens and the 15th Amendment granted blacks the right to vote, but the failure of Reconstruction and racism would stop those laws from becoming a reality for many black citizens in the U.S. until the mid-20th century.

U.S. Civil War, the Battle of Chickamauga, 1864

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Major Political Events of 1815–1871

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Europe in 1871

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Industrialism, Technology, and Warfare

Industrialism spread across most of Europe and the United States. New technologies such as steamships, steam locomotives made industry and travel quicker and more efficient.

The expansion of railroad lines allowed the movement of goods and people across vast continents. Vast canals allowed shorter routes for water transportation.

The telegraph and, in 1866,the first transatlantic telegraph cable allowed communications across the shrinking globe. Water turbines allowed for the growth of sawmills, textile plants, and eventually hydroelectric plants.

Gas-lighting with coal gas was developed in the early 1800’s and by the 1870’s most European towns and cities were outfitted with gas lights. Oil was developed as a new power source for kerosene lamps (gasoline was considered a waste product at the time, but that would soon change).

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Industrialism, Technology, and Warfare

The new military technology included steam-powered warships, railway engines to haul troops and supplies, and the development of new breech-loading cannon, and breechloading rifles that fired using a metal cartridge (as opposed to the muzzle-loaders loose powder and ball).
Lever and bolt-action rifles, as well as multi-shot revolvers increased the killing power of European armies.
The industrial military complex, with weapons from arms manufacturers and orders from government procurement offices continued to grow and the manufacturing of new and more efficient weapons of destruction fueled and was fueled by the Industrial Revolution.

British Martini-Henry Rifle (1871)

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The Gatling Gun was Developed in 1865

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Social Costs of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution spread, but do to the laissez-faire policies all of the wealth went to the owners and industrialists. The suffering and the squalid circumstances of the working class, who made this great production of wealth possible, was ignored.
There were no laws to protect workers, children and women were exploited, the working poor and their families were crowded into slums and ghettos, without sanitation or access to clean water.
The slums became breeding grounds for class hatred and offered ready audiences for revolutionaries and socialists advocating for social justice and change. The rebellions that flashed across the continent were largely caused by the frustration of the working class.

The Struggle

of the Working

Class in the

Industrial Age

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Tenement Conditions

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Tenement Conditions

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Child Workers

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Child Laborers

Child Coal Mine Workers

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Child Coal Mine Workers

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Nineteenth-Century Thought: Philosophy

Liberalism Redefined- liberalism had always argued for free expression for each human being, but now that was being used to justify economic policies that seemed to bring nothing but poverty, degradation, and injustice for workers and new voices called for a new approach to deal with the evils of industrial capitalism.
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) an English philosopher and social theorist advocated “utilitarianism.” He argued that “utility” was the supreme moral principle. That is, what results in the “greatest good for the greatest number of people.
The brilliant English philosopher John Stuart Mill (806-73) feared the industrial revolution and the powerful state would destroy individual rights and human dignity. In his book “On Liberty” (1859), he argued that the continued existence of a civilized community required that the fullest freedom of speech, discussion, and behavior that was possible, as long as no person was physically harmed. Mills also believed that distribution of the benefits of industrialism should be divided under rational lines

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Nineteenth-Century Thought: Socialism

Socialism began as a reaction to the injustices of the industrialized world and came to be its most severe critic, holding out a vision of what society might become if only certain fundamental reforms were made.
The Utopian Socialists had their greatest impact prior to 1848. They believed that the problem with capitalism was, realistically enough, that workers were not receiving their fair share for their efforts and the wealth they produced. They proposed a number of alternatives, none of them very realistic, to solve this inequality.
The Marxists, who flourished after 1848, followed the views of Karl Marx (1818-1883). Marx's work in economics laid the basis for much of the current understanding of labour and its relation to capital, and subsequent economic thought.
He is one of the founders of sociology and social science. He published numerous books during his lifetime, the most notable being The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867–1894).

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Karl Marx (1818-1883)

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Nineteenth-Century Thought: Socialism

Marx studied Hegel’s dialectical explanation of historical change, but as an atheist he rejected Hegel’s emphasis on spirit. Marx believed that the various stages of historical development were propelled by class conflict.
The bourgeoise had emerged out of the collapse of the feudal system and would be replaced by the proletariat (working class). He saw society as merely a reflection of the values of the ruling class (the bourgeoise) which enacted laws and set up society in such a way as to keep themselves in power.
He believed that the proletariat should, and would, rise up, rebel and install a classless society. This would lead to communism where all class distinctions would be abolished and exploitation of the masses would end.
Marx’s views on class conflict are still applicable to this day, although the utopian aspects of his ultimate communal society is largely rejected.

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Nineteenth-Century Thought: Religion

In the field of religion “evangelicalism,” with its focus on personal salvation (being “born again”) and strict biblical faith, gained power in many of the Protestant faiths (particularly in America).
A reactionary and repressive papacy denounced many modern ideas and in 1870 proclaimed the doctrine of “papal infallibility.”
Generally, the religious world felt threatened by modern scientific thought
However, some German Protestant scholars began a movement called “Higher criticism,” which studied the books of the Bible not as inspired books, but rather as a set of human writings susceptible to interpretation and mistake and challenged their literal interpretation.

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Nineteenth-Century Thought: Science

Geologists discredited the Biblical story of creation and biologists questioned the divine origins of human beings.

Charles Darwin (1809-82) published his On the Origin of Species (1859) proving that the theory of evolution was a principle of biological development. He published his Descent of Man in 1871 that portrayed human beings as being the outcome of millions of years of evolution.

Atomic theory was developed in the early 1800’s and the Periodic table of elements was developed in 1869.

Louis Pasteur (1822-95) developed the germ theory of disease which ushered in the age of modern medicine.

Painkillers - In 1804 morphine was first extracted from opium. In the 1840’s nitrous oxide and chloroform were developed. In 1851 the modern glass syringe was invented. These desensitizers revolutionized the treatment of disease and made modern surgery possible.

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Charles Darwin (1809-82) & Louis Pasteur (1822-95)

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