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Northern Humanism, Northern Renaissance, Religious Reformations, and Late Mannerism
1500–1603

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Northern Europe

As the High Renaissance and early mannerism were unfolding in Italy the rest of Europe was being transformed by three developments.
Northern (Christian) Humanism, a scholarly and literary movement.
Two artistic styles, the northern Renaissance style, which originated in Northern Europe and lasted from about 1500-1560 and the late mannerism, which flourished mostly in Spain and northern Italy and lasted until about 1600.
Finally, the religious crisis of the Protestant Reformation began in Germany in 1517 and split the Christian religion, and triggered wars across the continent.
It was followed by the Counter-Reformation, when the Roman Catholic Church struck back in the late 1500’s.

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Northern Humanism

Northern Humanism (also known as Christian humanism) shared many of the values of the High Renaissance: idealism, rationalism, and a deep love for classical literature. However, unlike the Italian humanists, the northern humanists were preoccupied with the condition of the church and the wider Christian world.
Their scholarship was intended to further the cause of ecclesiastical reform. They taught that any Christian who had a pure and humble heart could pray directly to God.
The thinking of some German Christian humanists was based on a national feeling and hostility toward Italian interference in their local religious affairs.

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Northern Humanism

François Rabelais (ca. 1494-1553), was a French humanist who vigorously attacked the Church’s abuses and ridiculed the clergy in his five-part satire titled “The Histories of Gargantua and Pantagruel.”
He reaffirmed the goodness of human nature and the ability of men and women to lead useful lives based on common sense, but his skepticism and secularism, as well as his ribald humor, obscene references, and grotesque escapades of his heroes, left him well outside the mainstream thought.
Marguerite of Angoulême (1492-1549) was the Queen of Navarre and sister of King Francis I and her court was a safe haven for Rabelais, as well as Protestant reformers and free spirits.
Marguerite wrote (or had written) the “Heptameron,” a collection of 70 highly sexual and somewhat scandalous tales, somewhat similar to Boccaccio’s “Decameron.”

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Northern Humanism

The outstanding figure among the humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536), a Dutch scholar who was trained as a priest and ordained, but never lived as a priest and instead lived as a writer and scholar, traveling widely and finding a second home in England in the intellectual circle of Sir Thomas More.
As a humanist he believed in education and the “humanitas” tradition, and as a Christian he believed in the “philosophy of Christ,” the message of the Sermon on the Mount and Jesus’ humble and virtuous life.
He believed that the Church could reform itself and avoid division by adopting his moderate approach. His most famous work was “The Praise of Folly,” filled with learned humor, gentle grace, and good sense. In it he makes a satirical attack on superstitions and other traditions of European society in general and the western Church in particular

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Holbein the Younger,

“Portrait of Erasmus”

(1523)

Unfortunately

Erasmus’s moderate

approach alienated

both the Catholic

Church and the

Protestant Reformers

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The Sixteenth Century

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The Northern Renaissance

While Italy was experiencing the High Renaissance, northern Europe was bursting with cultural vitality.
Jean Bodin (1530-96), a French political philosopher and author, lived through eight contentious wars between the Huguenots (French Protestants) and the Catholic faithful who were loyal to the king. He argued for political sovereignty and the absolute power of the monarchy, and the concept of an ideal state. His most famous work was the “Six Books of the Commonwealth”
Andreas Vesalius (1513-54), a physician to the court of the Holy Roman Emperor, made his contributions to the sciences. He dissected human cadavers and analyzed human bones. He uncovered errors in the ancient teachings of the Roman physician, Galen.
His accurate descriptions of the human body transformed the study of anatomy and his work influenced physiology, biology, and the study of medicine.

Andreas Vesalius,

Drawing from

De Humani Corporis

(1543)

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Literature: William Shakespeare

During the reign of Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) London rose to a cultural eminence that rivaled Florence of the early Renaissance.
English playwrights rescued tragedy and comedy from oblivion and a robust and successful secular commercial theatre developed, with professional playwrights, actors, playhouses, and a ticket-buying audience.
Many able dramatists such as Thomas Kyd (1557-95) and Christopher Marlowe (1564-93) revolutionized drama in a single generation, but first honors must be given to William Shakespeare (1564-1616), the greatest dramatist and playwright in the English language.

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Chandos Portrait of

William Shakespeare

(1600-10)

Artist Unknown

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Literature: William Shakespeare

With the exception of “Romeo and Juliet,” William Shakespeare's first plays were mostly histories written in the early 1590s. “Richard II,” “Henry VI” (parts 1, 2 and 3) and “Henry V” dramatize the destructive results of weak or corrupt rulers, and have been interpreted by drama historians as Shakespeare's way of justifying the origins of the Tudor Dynasty.
Shakespeare also wrote several comedies during his early period: the witty romance “A Midsummer Night's Dream,” the romantic “Merchant of Venice,” the wit and wordplay of “Much Ado About Nothing,” the charming “As You Like It,” and “Twelfth Night.”
Other plays, possibly written before 1600, include “Titus Andronicus,” “The Comedy of Errors,” “The Taming of the Shrew,” and “The Two Gentlemen of Verona.”

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Literature: William Shakespeare

It was in William Shakespeare's later period, after 1600, that he wrote the tragedies “Hamlet,” “King Lear,” “Othello,” and “Macbeth.” In these, Shakespeare's characters present vivid impressions of human temperament that are timeless and universal.
Possibly the best known of these plays is “Hamlet,” which explores betrayal, retribution, incest and moral failure. These moral failures often drive the twists and turns of Shakespeare's plots, destroying the hero and those he loves.
In William Shakespeare's final period, he wrote several tragicomedies. Among these are “Cymbeline,” “The Winter's Tale,” and “The Tempest.” Though graver in tone than the comedies, they are not the dark tragedies of “King Lear” or “Macbeth” because they end with reconciliation and forgiveness.
All of Shakespeare’s plays were written for commercial theatre and not published for the reading public until after his death.

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The Reconstructed Globe Playhouse
Built by Shakespeare and his Business Partners by 1597

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The Reconstructed Globe Playhouse

http://www.cracked.com/article_20501_7-filthy-jokes-you-didnt-notice-in-shakespeare.html

Northern Renaissance Painting

Hieronymus Bosch (ca. 1450-1516) works reflect the political upheavals and religious strife that existed in Northern Europe during this time.

Bosch seems torn between the declining late Gothic style and the soon-to-be-born mannerist style. The best way to look at Bosch is as an artist whose originality has placed him outside of any historical period.

His best known, most controversial, and very strange work was “Garden of Earthly Delights,” show three interrelated scenes organized around the themes of the creation, man’s fall, and the damnation of the human race.

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Bosch, Garden of Earthly Delights (1510-15)

Images from Bosch’s,

Garden of Earthly Delights

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Images from Bosch’s,
Garden of Earthly Delights

Images from Bosch’s,

Garden of Earthly Delights

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Northern Renaissance Painting

Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) was one of the most famous and influential German painters and engravers.

His high-quality woodcuts established his reputation and influence across Europe when he was still in his twenties, and he has been conventionally regarded as the greatest artist of the Northern Renaissance.

Dürer's introduction of classical motifs into Northern art, through his knowledge of Italian artists and German humanists, has secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance.

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Albrecht Durer,
Self Portrait
1500
Oil on panel

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Albrecht Durer, Portrait of a Young Venetian Woman, (1505)
& Self-Portrait (1493)

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Albrecht Durer, Portrait of Bernhard von Reesen (1521)
& Self-Portrait (1498)

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Albrecht Durer, Portrait of Maximilian I
(1518)

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Albrecht Durer, Young Hare
(1502)

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Albrecht Durer, Adam & Eve
(1507)

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Albrecht Durer, Adam & Eve (1503)

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Albrecht Durer, Man of Sorrows (1508)

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Albrecht Durer, Melencolia I (1514)

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Albrecht Durer, Saint Jerome in his study
(1513)

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Albrecht Hands (1508)

Albrecht Durer, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

(1498)

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Albrecht Durer, Knight, Death, and the Devil

(1513)

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Northern Renaissance Painting

Matthias Grünewald (1470-1528) was a German Renaissance painter of religious works who ignored Renaissance classicism to continue the expressive and intense style of late medieval Central European art into the 16th century.

Only ten paintings—several consisting of many panels—and thirty-five drawings survive, all religious, although many others were lost at sea in the Baltic on their way to Sweden as war booty.

Matthias Grunewald, The Crucifixion (1515)

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Grunewald’s

The Crucifixion

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Northern Renaissance Painting

Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525-69) was a Flemish painter and engraver that became famous for his “genre paintings,” focusing on landscapes and peasant scenes.

Making the life and manners of peasants the main focus of a work was rare in painting in Bruegel's time, and he was a pioneer of the genre painting.

His earthy, unsentimental but vivid depiction of the rituals of village life—including agriculture, hunts, meals, festivals, dances, and games—are unique windows on a vanished folk culture.

He is considered the first truly modern painter in northern Europe.

Peter Bruegel the Elder, Wedding Dance (1566)

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Peter Bruegel, “The Peasant Dance” (1567)

Peter Bruegel, “The Peasant Wedding (1556-9)

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Peter Bruegel, Netherlandish Proverbs (1559)

This Painting Contains Illustrations of Over 100 Dutch Proverbs

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Bang Your Head

Against a Brick Wall

Armed to the teeth

World Turned

Upside Down

The Die Are Cast

Lead Each Other by the Nose

(Fool One Another)

To look through

one's fingers

(Turn a Blind Eye)

Two fools under one hood

(Stupidity Loves Company)

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Northern Renaissance Painting

Lucas Cranach the Elder (ca. 1472 – 1553) was a German Painter and printmaker who did many portraits of German princes and leaders of the Reformation.

He painted religious subjects, and tried to convey Lutheran religious concerns in art, but also continued throughout his career to paint nude subjects drawn from mythology and religion.

Lucas Cranach the Elder,
Martin Luther (1533)
Despite his close
friendship with
Martin Luther
and his dedication to the Lutheran movement, the artist continued to paint nudes as well as religious works

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Lucas Cranach the Elder,

"Crucifixion of Christ”

(1503)

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Lucas Cranach

the Elder,

“Madonna

Under the Fir Tree”

(1510)

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Lucas Cranach

the Elder,

Nudes Series

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Venus

Justice

Cupid

Complaining

To Venus

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The Breakup of Christendom:
Causes of the Religious Reformations

Protestantism first appeared in Germany where Martin Luther led the founding of a new religious sect in the 1520’s.
In the 1530’s a second generation of Protestants, acting on the opportunity created by Luther. A French scholar, by the name of John Calvin, formed an independent Church in Geneva, Switzerland.
Beginning in 1529 and completed in 1537 King Henry VIII of England broke with Catholicism and pushed through Parliament a law creating the Church of England (Anglican Church) with the king as the head

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Lucas Cranach

the Elder,

“Martin Luther’s

wife

Katherine

Von Bora”

(1528)

Luther’s

wife was a

former nun

“liberated”

from a

convent

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The Revolt of Martin Luther

Martin Luther (1483-1546) was a German Monk teaching at Wittenberg University. He opposed the Church’s selling of indulgences, pardons that you could buy from the Church that reduced the amount of penance Christians had to perform to receive forgiveness for sins.

In 1517 Luther published his famous “Ninety-Five Theses,” which argued against the legitimacy of indulgences and challenged the sacraments of confession, penance, and the authority of the Pope.

In 1520 Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther. Luther only survived because he was under the protection of his patron, Elector Frederick the Wise, the ruler of Saxony.

The movement quickly gained adherents in the German states, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, Scotland and portions of France. Support came from sincere religious reformers, while others manipulated the movement to gain control of valuable church property.

Albrecht Durer,

“Elector Frederick

the Wise of Saxony”

(1524)

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Luther’s Beliefs

Luther tried to revive Christianity based upon biblical precedents of the early church. He believed that salvation was achieved not by good works but from God’s grace. Luther argued that salvation was only attainable by faith in the sacrificial death of Jesus.

He believed that the sole source of religious authority was the Bible and rejected the authority of the Pope and church councils and that ordinary people could be their own priests and did not need the clergy to mediate with God.

He repudiated the mystical definition of the sacraments, the notion of purgatory, the adoration of the saints, Masses for the dead, and monasticism.

He only retained baptism and the Lord’s Supper (what he called the Eucharist) and replaced Masses with preaching in the vernacular language.

Luther supported education and affirmed male rule and female submission in the family.

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The Reforms of John Calvin

John Calvin (1509-64) After earning a law degree in Paris he experienced a religious conversion and cast his lot with the Reformation.

He left France and fled to Switzerland where he became the principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism.

Like Luther, Calvin advocated beliefs based on biblical roots, but he differed from Luther over the nature of God, church-state relations, and Christian morals.

Calvin believed in an awesome, even angry God and in “predestination,” the belief that God predetermines certain souls to salvation and others to damnation.

He espoused a theocratic state, subordinate to the church, strict ethical demands regulating everything from laughter to public displays of affection. Calvin’s teaching supported Christian accumulation of capital and developed the idea that worldly success was equal to God’s approval and that poverty was a sign of God’s disfavor.

Anonymous,
Portrait of John Calvin (1550’s)

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The Reform of the English Church

Henry VIII had once been a sincere Roman Catholic and had even authored a book strongly criticizing Luther, but he later found it expedient and profitable to break with the Catholic Church.

Henry wanted the pope to grant him an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragorn, who had not borne any male heirs, and to marry his new mistress Anne Boleyn.

The Pope probably would have agreed, but Charles V, was Catherine’s nephew and had recently sacked Rome. Charles V was simply too powerful for the Pope to oppose.

King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. In 1534, the Act of Supremacy recognized Henry as "the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England"

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Hans Holbein the Younger, “Henry VIII”
(1537)

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The Reform of the English Church

Huge amounts of church land and property passed into the hands of the Crown and ultimately into those of the nobility and gentry. The vested interest thus created made for a powerful force in support of the dissolutions.

Henry VIII remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings and the Anglican church retained similar to the Catholic faith in many ways, but different in others (Anglican priests were allowed to marry, for instance).

Reformers in the Church of England alternated, for centuries, between sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing into a tradition considered a middle way between the Roman Catholic and Protestant traditions.

Catherine of Aragorn

Anne Boleyn

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The Religious Situation in Europe in 1560

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The Counter-Reformation

In response to the Protestant Reformation, Pope Paul III attempted to revitalize the Catholic Church with the Counter-Reformation.
In 1545 he convened the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed the practices that were condemned by the Protestants, such as the sacraments, monasticism, the sale of indulgences, and the veneration of holy relics.
They offered no overtures to the Protestants and thus solidified the split in Christian Europe, although they did attempt to limit abuses, such as the corruption of the clergy, luxurious living by church officials, and an attempt was made to regulate the training of candidates for the priesthood.
Pope Paul III and his successors reorganized the papal bureaucracy and enforced discipline throughout the ecclesiastical hierarchy.

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The Counter-Reformation

The Catholic Church created new Monastic Orders, most significantly the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). The Jesuits emerged as the leading monastic order in the Church under the orders founder Ignatius Loyola.

The Jesuits took a direct vow of loyalty to the Pope and had a particular emphasis on education and missionary work and became a major force in the conversion of people in the New World.

A committee of Churchmen drew up an Index of Forbidden Books, which listed writings that were off-limits to the faithful because they were considered prejudicial to faith and morals (this included the works of Luther, Calvin, and others).
This tactic failed to suppress threatening ideas, but the Index continued to be updated until the 1960’s.

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The Inquisition

The Church also expanded the Inquisition which was responsible for prosecuting individuals accused of committing offences relating to heresy, including Protestantism, immorality, blasphemy, Judaism, and witchcraft. The geographic scope was expanded to include the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions.

The Inquisition process assumed guilt and used torture to coerce confessions. The final stage of the process was the “auto-da-fé ” which was the ritual of public penance of condemned heretics and apostates, followed by the execution of sentence, usually burning at the stake. Tens of thousands died this way.

Inquisition Torture

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The Auto-da-fé

(ca. 1495)

The final stage in

The Inquisition

process. The accused

does public penance

and then execution

is carried out

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Heretics Being Burned at the Stake

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Warfare as a Response to Religious Dissent, 1520–1603

The religious turmoil eventually erupted into warfare between secular rulers of different faiths. Wars between the Catholic forces of Charles V armies and Lutheran forces in German lands began in 1546 and lasted nearly 10 years.

The Peace of Augsburg brought hostilities to an end in 1555 and it was determined that the rulers religion would be the official faith of each territory, with no tolerance to dissenters (who would be forced to migrate to nearby lands).

This plan failed to recognize the rights of minority sects, such as Calvinists and others and contained the seeds for future religious wars.

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Warfare as a Response to Religious Dissent, 1520–1603

In 1556, Philip II inherited the Spanish throne from Charles II and became the head of the Roman Catholic cause and western Europe suffered religious violence.

Financed by gold and silver from the New World, Philip dominated European politics with his well-prepared armies. He expelled Muslims from Spain, fought the Turks in the Mediterranean, invaded Portugal, and launched a costly campaign against the United Provinces in the northern Netherlands.

As the Dutch War was winding down he turned his attention to Protestant England under Queen Elizabeth I. His attempts to invade England ended in disaster with the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 when his huge fleet was defeated by English sea-power and a violent storm.

Defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588

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Defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588

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King Philip II

Queen Elizabeth I

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Late Mannerism

The Council of Trent also decreed that art and music should be easily accessible to the uneducated.
Some Counter-Reformation Popes declared some of Michelangelo’s male nudes in “The Last Judgment” to be obscene and ordered loincloths to be painted over them.
Late mannerism, which emerged in Europe after 1564, dominated painting in Catholic Spain.
This was best expressed by El Greco (1541-1614). El Greco was a native of Crete who relocated to Spain. He was very popular with the Catholic clergy and his works expressed the spirit of the Counter-Reformation.

El Greco,
The Burial of
Count Orgaz
(1586)

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El Greco’s “The Holy Trinity” (1577–1579) and “The Assumption of the Virgin: (1577–1579)

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El Greco, Cardinal Guevara
(1596-1600)
The Cardinal was the Chief Inquisitor
who vigorously
persecuted heretics

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Late Mannerism

Another late mannerist artist-in-exile, working in Spain was Sofonisba Anguissola (ca. 1532-1625).

She was from northern Italy and received praise and encouragement from the aging Michelangelo.

One of the leading female artists of her day, she became the court painter to Philip II of Spain.

Sofonisba Anguissola,
Family Portrait, Minerva, Amilcare and Asdrubale Anguissola, 1557
The artist was
one of the
leading female
painters of
her time.
She was praised by
Michelangelo and
became the court
painter to Philip II of Spain

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Sofonisba Anguissola, “Queen Elisabeth of Spain” (1599) and “Self Portrait” (1610)

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Sofonisba Anguissola, “Philip II” (1564)and “Massimiliano Stampa, Third Marquis of Soncin” (1556)

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Late Mannerism

The leading exponent of late mannerist painting in Italy was Tintoretto(1518-94).
He was known for his feverish and emotional style, his love of color, and use of theatrical lighting.

Tintoretto, “St. Mark’s Body Brought to Venice” (1548)
The leading exponent of late mannerist painting in Italy was Tintoretto(1518-94). He was known for his feverish and emotional style, his love of color, and use of theatrical lighting.

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Tintoretto, “St. Mark’s Body Brought to Venice” (1548)

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Tintoretto, The Last Supper (1592-4)

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Spanish Literature

Known in Spanish as “Siglo de Oro” or the Golden Century, the sixteenth century is the high point of Spain’s literary history. The writings were characterized by direct observations of life, satiric treatment of earlier epics and ballads, religious zeal, and Spanish themes, values, and subject matter with the influence of Renaissance humanism.

The Spanish dramatist, Lope de Vega (562-1635) wrote 526 secular plays and 42 religious dramas and is credited with founding the Spanish national theatre.

The “chivalric novel,” a late medieval literary form that presented romantic stories of knights and their ladies was challenged by the more realistic “picaresque novel” (picaro meaning rouge).

Don Quixote
(1605 & 1615)

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The Spanish novel

was raised to new heights

by Miguel de Cervantes (1547-

1616) And his epic novel “Don

Quixote,” which is the proto-

type of the Modern novel.

The adventures of the half-

mad visionary, Don Quixote

and his plodding, level-

headed servant, Sancho Panza

personify the universal theme

that idealism and realism

must go hand in hand.

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The Legacy of Northern Humanism, Northern Renaissance, Religious Reformations, and Late Mannerism

The rise of the centralized sovereign state.
The division of Europe into Protestant and Catholic camps.
The rise of Puritanism and the glorification of the work ethic.
Works of great timeless authors like William Shakespeare and Cervantes.
The works of great painters and artists of the northern Renaissance and late mannerism.