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Chapter 13—Race and Ethnicity

Jon Witt

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What’s to Come?

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As You
Read

How do sociologists
define race and ethnicity?

What are prejudice
and discrimination,
and how do they operate?

What are the
consequences of race
and ethnicity for opportunity?

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Racial and Ethnic Groups

Election of Barack Obama as president marked a watershed moment in American history

Since European colonists,
intergroup relations based on ethnic and racial background have played
powerful role in shaping both interaction and opportunity in U.S.

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Racial and Ethnic Groups

Minority Group Subordinate
group whose members
have significantly less control
or power over their own lives than members of dominant group
Racial Group Group set
apart from others because of physical differences that
have taken on social significance
Ethnic Group Group set apart from others primarily because of national origin or distinctive cultural patterns

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Racial and Ethnic Groups

Race

Social Construction of Race

We socially construct
racial categories
to reconcile
significant differences
between us

People in U.S. tend
to lump others into
traditional categories
of “Black,” “White,”
and “Asian.”

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Racial and Ethnic Groups

Race

Social Construction of Race

Process by which people come to define a group as a race based on physical characteristics, but also on historical, cultural, and economic factors

Racial Formation Sociohistorical process in which racial categories are created, inhibited, transformed, and destroyed

Stereotype Unreliable generalization about all members of a group that does
not recognize individual differences
within the group

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Source: U.S. Census Bureau 2012s: Table S0201.

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Racial and Ethnic Groups

Race

Multiple Identities

2000 and 2010 Census allowed
people to select more than one
category when identifying their race

People can now choose from five major race categories—White, Black, Asian, Native American, and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander—in addition to “Some other race.”

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Source: Nobles 2000:1739; U.S. Census Bureau 2010c.

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Racial and Ethnic Groups

Ethnicity

An ethnic group is set apart from
others explicitly because of its
national origin or cultural patterns

Distinction between racial and
ethnic minorities not always clear-cut

Distinction between racial and
ethnic groups is socially significant

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Prejudice and Discrimination

Prejudice Negative attitude
toward an entire category of people

Tends to perpetuate false
definitions of individuals and groups

Ethnocentrism Tendency to
assume one’s own culture and
way of life represent the norm
or are superior to all others

Racism Belief that one
race is supreme and
all others are innately inferior

Color-blind Racism Use of
principle of race neutrality to
perpetuate racially unequal status quo

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Prejudice and Discrimination

Discrimination Denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups because of prejudice or other arbitrary reasons

Discriminatory Behavior

Can occur with or without prejudiced attitudes

Hate Crime Criminal offense committed because of offender’s bias against an individual based
on race, religion, ethnicity, national origin, or sexual orientation

Glass Ceiling In the U.S., minorities are less likely to be promoted to high levels of authority than White men

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Source: U.S. Department of Justice 2011c: Table 1.

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Prejudice and Discrimination

Discrimination

Racial Profiling Any police-
initiated action based on race,
ethnicity, or national origin
rather than on a person’s behavior

Often based on explicit stereotypes

Occurs despite overwhelming evidence that race is not valid predictor of criminal behavior

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Prejudice and Discrimination

The Privileges of the Dominant

Often overlooked aspect
of discrimination

White privilege is the other side
of the coin of racial discrimination

Most White people rarely think
about their “Whiteness,” taking
their status for granted

Little need for White people to leave their comfort zone

Parenting easier

Job seeking advantage

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Prejudice and Discrimination

Institutional Discrimination

Denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from normal operations of a society

Affirmative Action Positive efforts
to recruit minority group members
or women for jobs, promotions,
and educational opportunities

Discriminatory practices continue to pervade nearly all areas of life in the United States

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Note: Includes only people working full-time, year-round, 16 years and older. White refers to non-Hispanic Whites.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau 2012s:Table S0201.

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Sociological Perspectives
on Race and Ethnicity

Social Order and Inequality

Dominant ideology provides a moral justification for maintaining an unequal society that routinely deprives minority groups of their rights and privileges

Exploitation Theory Views
racial subordination in U.S.
as manifestation of the class
system inherent in capitalism

Discrimination limits search for talent
and leadership to dominant group

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Source: Pew Research Center 2007:30.

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Sociological Perspectives
on Race and Ethnicity

Contact Hypothesis Theory that, in cooperative circumstances, interracial contact between people of equal status will reduce prejudice

Trend in U.S. society is toward increasing contact between individuals from dominant and subordinate groups

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Sociological Perspectives
on Race and Ethnicity

Patterns of Intergroup Relations

Genocide Deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation

Expulsion Systematic removal of a group of people from society

Amalgamation When a majority
group and a minority group
combine to form a new group

Assimilation Process through
which a person forsakes his
or her own cultural tradition to
become part of a different culture

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Sociological Perspectives
on Race and Ethnicity

Patterns of Intergroup Relations

Segregation Physical separation of two or more groups of people in terms of residence, workplace, and social events, often imposed on a minority by a dominant group

Apartheid Former policy of South
African government designed to maintain separation of Blacks and other
non-Whites from the dominant Whites

Residential segregation remains the norm in the United States, even with laws outlawing housing discrimination

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Sociological Perspectives
on Race and Ethnicity

Patterns of Intergroup Relations

Pluralism Mutual respect for
one another’s cultures among
various groups in a society, which allows minorities to express their own cultures without experiencing prejudice

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Race and Ethnicity
in the United States

Racial Groups

African Americans

As of 2011, over 27% living in poverty

Contemporary institutional discrimination and individual prejudice against African Americans rooted in history of slavery

Black Power Political philosophy, popular among young Blacks in the 1960s, that supported the creation of Black-controlled political and economic institutions

Black and White citizens
are still separate, still unequal

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Note: U.S. Census categories vary over time.
Sources: Gibson and Jung 2002: Table 1; U.S. Census Bureau 2012s: Table S0201,

2012t: Table 6.

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Source: National Center for Health Statistics 2013:Table 18.

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Racial and Ethnic Groups

Racial Groups

Native Americans

2.5 million Native Americans represent diverse array of cultures distinguishable
by language, family organization,
religion, and livelihood

Life remains difficult for members
of 562 tribal groups in U.S.

Introduction of gambling on Indian reservations transformed lives
of some Native Americans

About two-thirds of recognized
tribes not involved in gambling

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Racial and Ethnic Groups

Racial Groups

Asian Americans

One of the fastest growing
segments of U.S. population

Often held up as model or ideal minority

Model Minority Subordinate group whose members supposedly have succeeded
economically, socially, and educationally despite past prejudice and discrimination

This representation minimizes the degree of diversity among Asian Americans

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Source: DeNavas-Walt et al. 2012:Table 3.

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Racial and Ethnic Groups

Racial Groups

Asian Americans

Vietnamese Americans

Came to U.S. during and after Vietnam War and, over time, gravitated toward larger
urban areas

Currently number about 1.6 million

Chinese Americans

Encouraged to immigrate to U.S. from 1850
to 1880

Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 sharply restricted immigration for decades

Currently, about 3.5 million Chinese
Americans live in U.S.

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Racial and Ethnic Groups

Racial Groups

Asian Americans

Japanese Americans

About 757,000 live in the U.S.

Detention in “evacuation” camps
during World War II caused severe
financial and emotional hardship

Korean Americans

1.5 million live in U.S.

First wave of immigration, 1903–1910;
second wave followed Korean War

In early 1990s, friction between Korean Americans and African Americans
attracted attention

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Source: U.S. Census Bureau 2012s:Table S0201.

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Racial and Ethnic Groups

Racial Groups

Arab Americans

Arab Americans hail from 22 nations

Arabic language is most
unifying force among Arabs

Up to 1.8 million people
of Arab ancestry reside in U.S.

Most are not Muslim

For years, and especially after the September 2001 terror attacks,
Arab Americans subject to profiling
and surveillance by law enforcement

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Source: Arab American Institute 2008.

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Racial and Ethnic Groups

Ethnic Groups

Hispanics are largest minority in U.S.

In 2011, nearly 52 million Hispanics
in U.S.

Latino population outnumbers
African American population in
8 of the 10 largest cities of the U.S.

Latino groups share a heritage of Spanish language and culture, and this can cause serious problems in their assimilation

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Note: Counties in grey lack sufficient data. Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American FactFinder, Table B03002.

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Racial and Ethnic Groups

Ethnic Groups

Mexican Americans

Largest Hispanic population in the U.S.

Opportunity to earn much more money in U.S. than in Mexico has drawn millions of immigrants, documented and undocumented, north

Aside from family, most important
social institution is the Catholic church

Puerto Ricans

Second-largest group

Residents of Puerto Rico have held the status of American citizens since 1917

Cuban Americans

Major immigration followed Castro’s seizure of power in 1959

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Source: Ennis et al. 2011.

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Source: U.S. Census Bureau 2012s:Table S0201.

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Racial and Ethnic Groups

Ethnic Groups

Jewish Americans

Constitute about 2 percent of population

U.S. has world’s largest concentration
of Jews

Anti-Semitism Anti-Jewish prejudice

White Ethnics

Make up significant
segment of U.S. population

Symbolic Ethnicity Ethnic identity that emphasizes concerns such as ethnic food or political issues rather than deeper ties to one’s ethnic heritage

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Immigration

Constantly increasing numbers of immigrants raise difficult questions

191 million international immigrants
in the world, or 3 percent of global population

Mass migrations have
tremendous social impact

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Immigration

Immigration Trends

Migration of people is not uniform across time or space

Currently seven of world’s
wealthiest nations shelter about
one-third of migrant population

Immigrants continue to face obstacles
due to relative lack of resources

Transnationals are people or
families who move across
borders multiple times in search
of better jobs and education

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Source: J. Allen 2008.

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Immigration

Immigration Policies

Often, clear racial and ethnic biases
are built into immigration policies

Since 1960s, U.S. encouraged
immigration of relatives of residents
and people with desirable skills

Recently, immigrants staged
massive marches to pressure
Congress to speed the naturalization process and develop ways for illegal immigrants to gain legal residency

Intense debate over immigration
reflects deep value conflicts in
the cultures of many nations

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Source: Homeland Security; Office of Immigration Statistics 2012.

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