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Chapter 12—Gender and Sexuality

Jon Witt

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What’s to Come?

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As You
Read

How has our understanding of gender and sexuality shifted over time?

How has opportunity for women in the United States changed over time?

To what extent does
gender still shape
access to resources?

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The Social
Construction of Gender

Sex and Gender

Sex Biological differences between males and females

Refers to who we are
as males and females

Gender Social and cultural significance we attach to those presumed biological differences

Refers to what we become as men and women, which occurs through socialization

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The Social
Construction of Gender

Sex and Gender

Many people exhibit physical characteristics that we presume
to belong to the “opposite” sex

Fausto-Sterling (1993) suggests
we have at least five sexes

Approximately 5.1 million
Americans who cannot
easily be categorized
as either male or female

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The Social
Construction of Gender

Gender-Role Socialization

Expressions of masculinity
and femininity are developed and reinforced through socialization

Boys must be masculine:
active, aggressive, tough,
daring, and dominant

Girls must be feminine:
soft, emotional, sweet,
and submissive

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The Social
Construction of Gender

Gender-Role Socialization

Gender Displays

We receive positive and negative feedback based on our gender performance

Working out what it means to be
feminine and masculine
through interactions with
others is an ongoing project

When we interact with others,
we usually display our gender clearly

We depend on established cues
to recognize someone’s sex

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Source: Nielsen et al. 2000:287.

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The Social
Construction of Gender

Gender Roles in the United States

Women’s Gender Roles

Women continue to face
pressure to be thin, beautiful,
submissive, sexy, and maternal

Films, television programs, and
magazine ads contribute to an
idealized image of feminine beauty

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The Social
Construction of Gender

Gender Roles in the United States

Women’s Gender Roles

Unrealistic, idealized image of
feminine beauty

Dove’s research for Campaign
for Real Beauty found that
only 2% of women around
felt comfortable describing
themselves as beautiful

Study of 20th century children’s books found that women were significantly underrepresented in central roles
and in illustrations

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Source: Etcoff et al. 2004.

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The Social
Construction of Gender

Gender Roles in the United States

Men’s Gender Roles

Stay-at-home fathers
an unusual phenomenon

One of the most powerful
expectations for males is to be
tough physically and emotionally
in sports, in work, and in relationships

Nonconformists often face
criticism and humiliation

Multiple Masculinities
Idea that men learn and
play a full range
of gender roles

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The Social
Construction of Gender

Gender Across Cultures

Gender expectations and performance vary across time and place

Gender roles vary
greatly from one
environment, economy,
and political system
to the next

Some cultures accept
the existence of three or
four genders

Findings of Mead and
Sanday confirm influential
role of culture and socialization
in gender-role differentiation

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The Social
Construction of Gender

Reimagining Sex and Gender

Sociologists have identified that sex and gender are social constructions

Recognizing limitations of simple, dimorphic model of sex opens opportunities for men and women

Major shifts in social life brought about by challenging what is considered “natural”

Identifying aspects of our definitions
of sex and gender as artificial reveals complex relationship between them

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Working for Change:
Women’s Movements

Feminism Belief in
social, economic, and
political equality for women
The First Wave

Feminist movement in U.S.
born in upstate New York, in the
town of Seneca Falls, in 1848

1872: Susan B. Anthony
arrested for attempting to vote

1920: 19th Amendment granted women the right to vote in national elections

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Working for Change:
Women’s Movements

The Second Wave

Emerged in the 1960s and came into full force in the 1970s

Friedan: The Feminine Mystique (1963)

de Beauvoir: The Second Sex (1952)

Millett: Sexual Politics (1970)

Groups sought to elevate
awareness that women shared “problem that has no name”

Whether women have control over their
reproductive rights and their bodies has played significant role in this movement

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Working for Change:
Women’s Movements

The Third Wave

1990s: feminism ventured into cultural sphere to embrace a multiplicity of voices, expressions, and experiences

Shift to a celebration of difference

Embracing multiplicity of identities
led to a commitment to social
justice and a global perspective

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Working for Change:
Women’s Movements

The Third Wave

Recognition that defining ourselves
by any one position may diminish importance of other positions we occupy

Standpoint Theory Maintains that a complete understanding of social relations must incorporate the perspectives of marginalized voices

Intersectionality Holds that gender, race, ethnicity, and class must not be studied in isolation, because they have intermingled effects on our identity, knowledge, and outcomes

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Social Construction
of Sexuality

Sexuality Denotes our identities
and activities as sexual beings
Sexuality and Identity

Sexual expression is situated within, and an outgrowth of, existing social, cultural, and historical processes

Sexual Orientation
Categories of people to whom
we are sexually attracted

Heterosexual Includes those
who are sexually attracted to
members of the opposite sex

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Social Construction
of Sexuality

Sexuality and Identity

Homosexual Includes those who are attracted to members of the same sex

Bisexual Includes those who are attracted to both men and women

Transgender People who appear to be biologically one sex but who identify with the gender of another

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Source: Meier, Hull, and Ortyl 2009.

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Social Construction
of Sexuality

Sexuality and Identity

Heteronormativity Cultural presupposition that heterosexuality
is appropriate standard for
sexual identity and practice
and that alternative sexualities
are deviant, abnormal, or wrong

Form of ethnocentrism

Differences in sexuality connected
to larger systems of power in
which some statuses are privileged

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Note: Percent is in response to the question “Do you think of yourself as a heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, or something else?”

Source: Chandra et al., 2013.

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Sexuality in Action

People often ignorant and curious about actual sexual practices

The Kinsey Reports (1948; 1953) provided earliest in-depth research studies on people’s sexual practices

National Survey of Family
Growth provides recent data
and includes detailed information
on actual sexual practices

Numbers of opposite-sex partners

Same-sex contact

Age and willingness of first sexual contact

Birth control practices

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Gender and Inequality

Parson and Bales: families need instrumental and expressive leader

Instrumental Leader Person who bears responsibility for completion
of tasks, focuses on more distant
goals, and manages external relationship between the family
and other social institutions

Expressive Leader Person
who bears responsibility for maintenance of harmony and
internal emotional affairs of family

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Gender and Inequality

Sociologists now
argue that such
separate abilities
are social constructs, not innate traits

Key sociological task
is to analyze how gender expectations are
created and maintained

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Gender and Inequality

Sexism and Discrimination

Sexism Ideology that one
sex is superior to the other

Institutional Discrimination
Pattern of treatment that
systematically denies a group
access to resources and opportunities as part of society’s normal operations

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Gender and Inequality

Women in the United States

Labor Force Participation

Over 58 percent of adult women in the United States were in the labor force in 2011; 43% in 1970

Occupational segregation confines
women to sex-typed “women’s jobs”

Women underrepresented in
“men’s jobs,” which offer greater
financial rewards and prestige

Glass Ceiling Invisible barrier that
blocks promotion of qualified individual
in a work environment because of the individual’s gender, race, or ethnicity

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Source: U.S. Census Bureau 1975, 2011h:Table 597.

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Note: Women constitute 47 percent of the entire labor force. These data are for 2011. The elementary school teacher category includes middle school teachers.

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 2013f: Table 11.

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Gender and Inequality

Women in the United States

Income

Women do not earn as much on average as men, even in the same occupations

Occupational segregation
does not explain wage gap

Home and Work

In dual-income families, fathers do an average of just over 9 hours of housework per week compared to over 15 hours for women

Even in households where she works and he does not, wives still do more housework

Second Shift Double burden of work outside the home followed by child care and housework faced by many women

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Note: Overall weekly earnings gap is 82.2%.

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 2012h: Table 1.

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Note: Reasons cited as major factors in voluntarily leaving their jobs in a survey of “highly qualified” workers, age 28-55, defined as those with a graduate degree, a professional degree, or a bachelor’s degree with honors.

Source: Hewlett, Foster, Sherbin, Shiller, and Sumberg 2010.

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Gender and Inequality

Women in the United States

Politics

Higher percentage of women
vote than men, but women remain underrepresented in elected office

In 2013:

Only 5 of the nation’s 50 states had a female governor

Progress, however, has been made

Sandra Day O’Connor became nation’s first female justice in 1981

By 2013, a record 18 percent of the members of Congress were women

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Source: CIRCLE 2013b.

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Gender and Inequality

Violence Against Women

Full extent of such violence
unknown because such crimes often
go unreported and unrecognized

Global survey found likelihood of experiencing physical or sexual violence varied significantly from place to place

Women and girls of all ages
are subject to acts of violence

Among college women who were victims of a forced sexual assault, only 13% reported it to police or campus security

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Gender and Inequality

Women Around the World

Opportunities for women vary significantly around the world

Grow half the world’s food,
but rarely own land

Are one-third of world’s
paid labor force, but are
generally in lowest-paying jobs

Feminization of poverty
is global phenomenon

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Source: Adapted from Fuwa 2004:757.

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