PSY301 Assignment

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Learning Objectives

By the end of the chapter you should be able to:

• Describe the characteristics of communicators that make them more persuasive

• Describe what characteristics of a message make it more persuasive

• Describe how culture, age, and self-esteem affect persuasion

• Differentiate the central route from the peripheral route to persuasion within the elaboration likeli- hood model

• Describe the persuasion techniques involving initial small requests

Persuasion 7

Chapter Outline

7.1 Who—Characteristics of the Persuader • Credibility: Expertise and Trustworthiness • Attractiveness and Likeability

7.2 What—Characteristics of the Message • Emotion • Framing • One-Sided and Two-Sided Messages

7.3 To Whom—Characteristics of the Audience • Culture • Age • Self-Esteem • Elaboration Likelihood Model

7.4 How—Persuasion Techniques • Foot-in-the-Door Technique • Lowball Technique • Legitimization-of-Paltry-Favors • Reciprocity • Door-in-the-Face Technique • That’s-not-all Technique • Scarcity • Pique Technique • Disrupt-Then-Reframe Technique

Chapter Summary

• Describe the use of reciprocity as a persuasion technique

• Explain techniques that begin with a large request

• Explain persuasion techniques that use scarcity

• Describe techniques that involve changing attention

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 Who—Characteristics of the Persuader

Every day, other people try to persuade us. Advertisements on television, the Internet, or the radio attempt to persuade us to buy a product. Family members, friends, and employers ask us to do them a favor. Some of these messages we quickly dismiss, but others convince us to buy the extra absorbent paper towels, or bake cupcakes for that fundraiser.

Imagine watching an infomercial for an exercise machine. The product is described by an attractive and trim fitness expert to a mildly skeptical person in front of an enthusiastic studio audience. The machine is demonstrated, the positive benefits and ease of use of the machine are touted, and viewers are offered the product at a low, low price. By the end of the infomercial the skeptic is convinced of the machine’s miraculous powers and you find yourself picking up the phone to order one for yourself. What makes such communications persuasive? Social psychology can help us find the answers to these questions by applying the scientific method to different aspects of persuasion—the persuader, the message, and the audience—as well as investigating specific persuasion techniques. Knowing more about persua- sion may allow us to better resist being persuaded in the future.

Persuasive communication can be divided into four parts: the communicator, the message, the audience, and the technique (see Figure 7.1). First we will deal with what characteristics of persuaders make people more likely to be persuaded. Next, we will think about characteristics of the message that lead people to change. Then, we will explore what characteristics of the audience can lead them to be persuaded. Finally, we will cover a variety of persuasion techniques advertisers, charities, friends, or relatives might use to persuade.

7.1 Who—Characteristics of the Persuader

Persuasive messages come from a source. The source may be someone you respect or someone you dislike—someone who knows a lot about a topic or someone who knows little. This someone could be a friend or a stranger. Depending on the char- acteristics of the persuader, people may be easily persuaded or skeptical of the claims of a message. Characteristics that have received a great deal of attention from researchers are credibility, attractiveness, and likeability.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 Who—Characteristics of the Persuader

Figure 7.1: The who, what, to whom, and how of persuasion

The four variables that affect persuasion are the person doing the persuading, the message being transmitted, the audience receiving the message, and the techniques used by the persuader.

Credibility: Expertise and Trustworthiness As you watch an infomercial, a central communicator is likely to offer arguments for the product. Whether or not you listen to this person likely depends on how credible you view that person to be. Credibility has two aspects: expertise and trustworthiness (Hov- land, Janis, & Kelley, 1953). A communicator with expertise is one who appears to have knowledge and is able to communicate it. A trustworthy communicator is one we believe is giving us accurate information.

The Persuader Important characteristics: • Credibility • Attractiveness and likeability

The Message Important characteristics: • Fear and guilt • Framing • One-sided and two-sided messages • Narratives and rational appeals

The Techniques Foot-in-the-door, low ball, legitimization-of- paltry-favors, reciprocity, door-in-the-face, that’s-not-all, scarcity, pique, disrupt-then- reframe

The Audience Important characteristics: • Culture • Age • Self-esteem • Elaboration Likelihood Model

Variables that affect the impact of

persuasion

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 Who—Characteristics of the Persuader

Messages from expert sources are persuasive when the message includes coherent and high quality arguments from within that expert’s field of knowledge (DeBono & Har- nish, 1988; Petty, Cacioppo, & Gold- man, 1981). Messages that come from an expert source but are of low quality are less persuasive than mes- sages coming from someone who is less of an expert, but who has strong arguments (Bohner, Ruder, & Erb, 2002; Tormala, Brinol, & Petty, 2006). However, an excess of confidence can sometimes limit the effectiveness of the persuasion. For example, in court an expert with a moderate level of confidence appears to be most persuasive, perhaps because a very high level of confidence is viewed as arrogant or unrealistic (Cramer, DeCoster, Harris, Fletcher, & Brodsky, 2011). Expert opinion is gener- ally only persuasive within that expert’s domain of expertise. For example, you might believe what fitness experts say about exercise, but not what they say about cake decorat- ing. An exception to this would be involving children, due to their place in society. For example, using children to demonstrate the safety features in a new vehicle may resonate with an adult’s perceived role as protector and nurturer (Pratkanis & Gliner, 2004).

At times, we may receive a message and not have the time or energy to think carefully through the argu- ments. In those instances the trustworthiness of the communicator can serve as a cue regarding whether we should trust the message. If we perceive that the commu- nicator is providing us with accurate information, we may not feel it necessary to carefully examine the mes-

sage itself. When we perceive the communicator to be less trustworthy, we may care- fully examine the message to determine if we can trust it. A message can, in this instance, still be persuasive if it contains strong arguments. A nonexpert who cites a study by the American Heart Association showing that the exercise equipment improves heart health in 90% of users has a strong argument, despite lack of expertise. An expert who points out that the stainless steel frame of the equipment will match any decor has a weak argument. Strong messages from non-expert sources can be persuasive because people carefully examine the arguments (Priester & Petty, 2003). Such careful examination creates stronger and more long-lasting attitude change.

Expand Your Knowledge: Propaganda

Governments, political parties, organizations, and indi- viduals have all used persuasive communications in an effort to sway the public. The website Propaganda Critic http://www.propagandacritic.com from the Institute for Propaganda Analysis, offers a look at pro- paganda, including a page on why investigating propa- ganda matters and analysis of a number of propaganda techniques.

PNC/Photodisc/Getty Images

Lawyers often retain expert witnesses to help strengthen their client’s case in favor of the jury.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 Who—Characteristics of the Persuader

Attractiveness and Likeability The attractiveness of the communicator is another factor in the persuasiveness of the message. In general, physically attractive communicators are more persuasive than less attractive communicators (Chaiken, 1979; Debevec, Madden, & Kernan, 1986; DeBono & Telesca, 1990). Physically attractive communicators may be more persuasive because they are viewed as more trustworthy than less attractive communicators—research has shown that we stereotype physically attractive people as having other positive qualities such as intelligence and honesty (Eagly, Ashmore, Makhijani, & Longo, 1991; Langlois, et al., 2000). We also tend to like physically attractive people more and want to interact with them (Reingen & Kernan, 1993). Even when a product is unrelated to attractiveness, we find attractive communicators more persuasive than less attractive communicators (Prax- marer, 2011).

Individuals we like are also more persuasive to us. You might buy Girl Scout cookies from the neighbor who you know and like, but you are likely to buy fewer cookies from the Girl Scout across town. For this reason, advertisers have found tricky ways to make it appear that an appeal is coming from someone we know and like. An envelope that appears to be addressed by hand and have a note inside is more likely to be opened and read than one that is clearly mass produced. In one study of this idea, a number of car owners in Dallas were sent an ad for car wax that appeared to have been ripped from a magazine, with a handwritten sticky note attached; if the recipient was named Mary, for example, the note would read “Mary—Try this. It works!—J,” with “J” being the supposed sender. The ad contained a mail-in card for a free sample of the car wax. The ad was sent in an unmarked white envelope, hand-addressed, with a first-class stamp. Another set of car owners were mailed the same ad, but in a typed envelope sent through metered mail, and the ad inside was simply printed on a sheet of paper with no note attached. When the message in the ad was strong and it appeared to come from someone they knew, almost double the number of car owners requested a free sample than if the message appeared to be mass produced (Howard & Kerin, 2004). A note from someone we might know is more persuasive than a message from a faceless company.

Should the communicators make their desires to persuade explicit? To maintain credibility and avoid reactance, advertisers generally avoid stating that they are trying to persuade; however, in some contexts such information can be helpful. You would likely attribute selfish motives to the fitness expert who is trying to sell exercise equipment he designed. But your doctor presumably has your best interests in mind, so his or her obviously per- suasive message about exercise may be received well (Campbell & Kirmani, 2000; Eagly, Wood, & Chaiken, 1978). Researchers have found that physically attractive communica- tors do well if they make their desire to persuade explicit. Unattractive communicators

Test Yourself

• What are the two aspects of credibility?

Expertise and trustworthiness are the two aspects of credibility.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 What—Characteristics of the Message

7.2 What—Characteristics of the Message

When making persuasive appeals, communicators must carefully consider the message they want to portray and how they want to share that message. A per-suader might try to scare you so you will adopt a healthy behavior. Should the message be terrifying, or just a little frightening to motivate you? Communicators must also consider whether sharing the other side’s arguments is helpful. If a phone company knows that a rival phone has a feature that its own product does not have, should it make a mention of it in the advertising? As we discover in this section, how a message is con- structed makes all the difference in how persuasive it will be.

Emotion Within a persuasive appeal, a communicator might attempt to elicit an emotion. Emotions contain both physiological and cognitive elements. For example, when you are frightened your blood pressure and your heart rate increase. The same bodily state may be inter- preted differently depending on the context. You might feel fear if you are in a dark alley and a stranger approaches. In the context of a thrilling video game, that same racing heart could be interpreted as excitement (Schachter & Singer, 1962). Advertisers may capitalize on this fact to help sell their products. A beer commercial with a lot of beautiful, scantily clad women may excite the men watching it—excitement that could transfer to the brand of beer the company is selling. When a camera follows a car down a curvy road through a majestic mountain landscape, we may feel a bit of awe at the beauty of the scenery, and we may transfer this sense of amazement to the car.

Test Yourself

• Who is more persuasive, an attractive communicator or an unattractive communicator?

An attractive communicator is usually more persuasive.

• What types of communicators should make you aware of their intent to persuade you?

Attractive persuaders and people we like are persuasive when we know they are trying to persuade us, as well as those who we know have our best interests at heart (doctor).

are not very successful in this instance (Messner, Reinhard, & Sporer, 2008). For the less attractive, keeping persuasive intent hidden is a better strategy. Similarly, disliked sources should conceal persuasive intent, while liked sources are more persuasive when they are open about persuasive intent (Reinhard, Messner, & Sporer, 2006).

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 What—Characteristics of the Message

One way persuaders may use emotion to con- vince us to do something is to draw on the “appropriate” emotions from our culture and social context. We learn from those around us what emotions are appropriate to feel (Averill, 1980). For example, convinced by your peers or the media that your home should be clean and smell like flowers, you buy a scented candle and spend more time cleaning to avoid feeling embar- rassed. Or, having learned from an advertiser that a new car will make you happy, you purchase a new vehicle.

Persuaders elicit specific emotions, such as fear, to motivate people to act. If a health educator were trying to convince smokers to quit smoking, would scaring them about the potential consequences of continuing to smoke be effective? Researchers have long been interested in how persuasive mes- sages that induce fear, what might be known as scare tactics, influence persuasion (Hovland et al., 1953, is an early example). The relationship was hypothesized to follow the pattern of an inverted

U, with little persuasion at low levels of fear, the greatest persuasion at moderate levels of fear, and low persuasion at high levels of fear (see Figure 7.2). At low fear levels persuasion would be low because there is not enough motivation to change. At a moderate rate of fear, persuasion should be highest; here people would be motivated to make a change but not so scared that they become paralyzed. At high levels of fear, according to this hypothesis, persuasion once again becomes less likely, as people become too frightened to process the information and respond to it. At this level, individuals may become defensive and ignore the content of the message. At a low level of fear, an antismoking message may not moti- vate smokers to change; the consequences may not seem dire enough to make the effort of quitting worth it. At a high level of fear, smokers may dismiss a message or become defen- sive about their habit. When a message induces a moderate level of fear smokers may be able to process the message rather than becoming defensive and be motivated to change.

Yet this hypothesis is problematic because the supporting research is inconclusive (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Janis & Leventhal, 1968). Some degree of fear is motivating, so messages that make it clear that the target is susceptible to the consequences of a threat are most effective (Maloney, Lapinski, & Witte, 2011). However, the most important predictor of behavior when confronted with scare tactics seems to not be the level of fear aroused, but the belief of individuals in their ability to engage in actions that will allow them to avoid the feared consequence (Ruiter, Abraham, & Kok, 2001). Smokers might be exposed to a message that evokes a great deal or just a little fear about lung cancer, but if they do not believe they can quit, thereby avoiding cancer, the level of fear in the appeal does not seem to matter much (Hoeken & Geurts, 2005; Timmers & van der Wijst, 2007; Witte, 1998).

Getty Images News/Getty Images

A graphic warning label such as this might scare people into rethinking their smoking habits.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 What—Characteristics of the Message

Some persuasive appeals may use guilt to attempt attitude change. Charities, for example, might describe people who are hungry or sick or homeless in an attempt to persuade someone to give money or time. Guilt appeals can be successful; the more guilty people feel, the greater their intention to donate. However, if recipients are generally skeptical of emotional appeals and believe the communicator is manipula- tive, they will not feel as much guilt and therefore not be as likely to donate (Hibbert, Smith, Davies, & Ireland, 2007).

Rather than working to generate certain emotions, advertisers can also appeal to con- sumers by tapping into their current emotional experience. Happy holiday shoppers are likely to be persuaded by a happy message. The sweet and sappy commercials for engage- ment rings will do well with those who are in love and feeling sweet and sappy toward their significant other. A match between the emotional state of the person and the emo- tional overtones of the persuasive message is the most effective (DeSteno, Petty, Rucker, Wegener, & Braverman, 2004).

The complexity of the emotion presented in the message also influences persuasion. When people do not have a lot of time or energy to devote to processing a message, their resources are low. Sadness and happiness are relatively simple emotions, and can be quickly pro- cessed by the individual. When the resources of the person are low and they are presented with an ad with simple emotions like happiness or sadness, they are more persuaded. If resources were low and the effectiveness of the message relied on the emotion of anxiety, a relatively complex emotion, the message would be less persuasive. For individuals with more time and energy to process the message, anxiety within a message could be more persuasive than a simple emotion within that message (Lau-Gesk & Meyers-Levy, 2009).

To generate an emotional response, persuaders might tell a story. Researchers have found that individuals are persuaded by stories if the stories are good, even when arguments themselves are weak. One element in persuasive stories is something called transpor- tation. In the context of story, transportation is the joining of feelings, attention, and thoughts (Green & Brock, 2000). The listener joins the storyteller on a journey, and, for the time being, focuses on the teller’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences. As a result, the listener comes away with a new or more informed perspective. On the other hand, when a message is shared not in a story but as a rational appeal, only strong arguments lead to attitude change (Escalas, 2007). People presented with personal narratives of a health risk viewed themselves as being more at risk and said they were more likely to get tested than those presented with statistical information on that health risk (deWit, Das, & Vet, 2008).

Figure 7.2: The inverted-U model

In Hovland’s study, the relationship between fear and persuasion was hypothesized to resemble an inverted U.

Highest Level of Persuasion

P e rs

u a s io

n

Fear Levels

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 What—Characteristics of the Message

Framing Messages can vary in whether they emphasize gains or losses. A message that focuses on benefits is described as being gain framed. If you were buying a vehicle, for example, the message that buying this car will keep you safe in a crash with all of its safety features emphasizes the things you would gain. A message that focuses on losses is loss framed. For example, a salesperson might suggest that if you do not buy this car with all of its safety features, your likelihood of experiencing major injury in a crash is increased. By emphasizing what you would lose, the message becomes loss framed. Framing can influ- ence responses to persuasive messages.

When dealing with prevention behaviors, such as exercising, gain-framed messages tend to be more effective. When encouraging detection behaviors, such as going to the doc- tor for a cancer screening, loss-framed messages tend to be more effective (Ferrer, Klein, Zajac, Land, & Ling, 2012; Rothman, Bartels, Wlaschin, & Salovey, 2006). When people are faced with a message and experiencing an emotion like fear, loss-framed messages are more persuasive. Fear is an emotion that leads to behavioral inhibition, or movement away from action. Anger and happiness are part of the behavioral approach system, moti- vating movement toward action. When people are angry or happy gain-framed messages are more persuasive (Gerend & Maner, 2011; Yan, Dillard, & Shen, 2012).

Gain-framed messages create more positive emotions than loss-framed emotions. How- ever, researchers have also found that, while being in a positive mood due to a gain- framed message leads to persuasion, being in a negative mood as a result of a loss-framed message may motivate people to do something about the threat (Van’T Riet, Ruiter, Werrij, Candel, & De Vries, 2010). Being happy because you realize from the infomercial all you might gain from buying this exercise equipment might persuade you that purchasing the equipment is a good idea. Or, being sad because you realize from the infomercial all the terrible things that could happen if you do not buy the equipment and begin exercising may actually get you to pick up the phone and make an order.

When presenting a persuasive message, it is important for the communicator to avoid making the audience defensive. Affirming what others believe and validating their con- cerns can increase message scrutiny and lead to a change in behavior (Correll, Spencer, & Zanna, 2004). When students’ concerns about availability of recycling containers were

Test Yourself

• What are the key elements to making a fear appeal persuasive?

The message needs to make it clear that the person is susceptible to the threat, the threat applies to the person, and that the person can avoid the threat.

• Are messages that have happy messages persuasive?

Happy messages can be persuasive, particularly if the message and the individual’s mood or resources match.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 What—Characteristics of the Message

Test Yourself

• Is a message encouraging people to quit smoking that emphasizes the benefit of years of healthy living a gain-framed or a loss-framed message?

The message is gain framed because it emphasizes benefits or gains rather than losses.

• Would a message that suggests people have yearly glaucoma tests be more persuasive if it was gain framed or loss framed?

Because the message involves detection behavior, rather than prevention behavior, a loss-framed message would be more persuasive.

validated (“we know it’s a long walk but . . .”), and they were encouraged to use the con- tainers that were available, even if it was inconvenient, their recycling behavior increased and lasted longer (Werner, Stoll, Birch, & White, 2002). Reactance, the tendency to reas- sert one’s freedom in the face of demands from others, can be reduced by affirming what that person believes. Acknowledging concerns works by reducing criticism of a persua- sive message, opening the individual up to consideration of the message (Werner, White, Byerly, & Stoll, 2009).

Another way to frame messages is by focusing on the long-term or the short-term con- sequences of an action, called temporal framing. A message encouraging colonoscopies might emphasize the peace of mind one would feel knowing that any potentially cancer- ous polyps have been removed. By focusing on current feelings or consequences, such messages use a short-term framing of a message. A colonoscopy message that uses a long- term frame might emphasize how removal of potentially cancerous polyps could provide years of life without colon cancer. When a message is about a health risk and focuses on short-term consequences, the risks of not engaging in the behavior are perceived as being more concrete (Chandran & Menon, 2004). Temporal framing can influence the per- suasiveness of gain-framed messages. College students receiving gain-framed messages that emphasized short-term consequences of drinking showed less drinking than those who received loss-framed messages emphasizing short-term consequences or those that described long-term consequences (Gerend & Cullen, 2008). Some people are more sensi- tive to short-term consequences of their actions and are, therefore, more persuaded by temporal frames that emphasize immediate consequences of actions (Orbell & Hagger, 2006; Orbell & Kyriakaki, 2008).

One-Sided and Two-Sided Messages Is presenting both sides of an argument advantageous or does it weaken the message? For example, if a car salesperson wanted to convince someone to buy an electric car, would just presenting the positive features of the car be best, or should the salesperson point out both the positive and negatives of owning an electric car? A communicator must also decide whether to simply describe the alternate position or also refute it. Should the elec- tric-car salesperson simply mention the drawbacks of owning such a vehicle (the fully charged vehicle goes only 100 miles), or also explain why those drawbacks are not of great concern (most trips people take are well under this distance)?

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 What—Characteristics of the Message

Generally, messages are most persuasive when they are first encountered. Over time the effect of a message gradually declines. For instance, you might be quite motivated to exer- cise after your doctor tells you about the importance of exercise. A few months later, how- ever, you find your gym clothes collecting dust in the corner. However, in some instances messages become more persuasive with time, a phenomenon known as the sleeper effect (Peterson & Thurstone, 1933/1970). For the sleeper effect to occur, individuals need to spend enough time thinking about the message that the message remains in memory (Priester, Wegner, Petty, & Fabrigar, 1999). People may discount a message when they first encounter it, but over time, forget their reasons for doing so, leading to their persuasion (Kumkale & Albarracin, 2004). If an unreliable source tells you a story you may at first discount the story because of the untrustworthiness of the source. After some time, how- ever, you may remember the story but forget who told it to you, making the story more persuasive a month after it was told to you. Some of the power of narratives may be due to the sleeper effect. The impression made by a narrative is retained, and any reasons for discounting it (it was just a fictional story) may be lost with time (Appel & Richter, 2007).

Test Yourself

• Are one-sided or two-sided messages more persuasive?

Two-sided messages are more persuasive if they include refutation of the opposing side. If not, then one-sided messages are more persuasive.

For the most part, two-sided messages are more persuasive when they provide a refuta- tion of the option the communicator is arguing against. If both sides are simply offered, with no refutation, one-sided messages are more persuasive (Allen, 1991; Buehl, Alexan- der, Murphy, & Sperl, 2001). In the exercise equipment infomercial, this means that the communicator should discuss the drawbacks of owning one’s own equipment and those drawbacks should be refuted. Owning one’s own equipment, for example, means taking care of it and storing it, but, the fitness expert might argue, this equipment takes almost no care and can easily be stored in the corner of a room.

When in court, defense lawyers must decide whether to present potentially incriminating evidence the prosecution might reveal. Presenting information that is potentially harm- ful before the prosecution does can allow the defense to take away some of the shock value that information might otherwise have. The name of this tactic is stealing thun- der. Within the courtroom, stealing thunder increases the credibility of the defense and changes the way jurors think about the incriminating evidence (Dolnik, Case & Williams, 2003; Williams, Bourgeois, & Croyle, 1993). By presenting evidence that might otherwise be condemning, the defense shows that it has done its research and is aware of the cir- cumstances. By presenting the evidence, the defense is then able to take it apart for the jurors, showing them why it is not condemning. This helps sway the opinion of the jurors, who might have otherwise formed a different opinion if the prosecution had framed the evidence. This tactic has been found to be more effective when jurors are trying to make quick decisions or are distracted or overwhelmed by the evidence. When jurors carefully consider the evidence, it has less of an effect (Howard, Brewer, & Williams, 2006).

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 To Whom—Characteristics of the Audience

7.3 To Whom—Characteristics of the Audience

The audience of a persuasive message is vitally important. Characteristics of the audi-ence may impact how a message is received. People from different cultures think about and respond to messages differently. Individuals of different ages and levels of self-esteem may also differ in how easily they are persuaded. In this section, we will explore how the characteristics of the audience affect reception of a message.

Culture A large-scale difference in audiences for persuasive messages is the cultural background of the audience. In Chapter 3, different ways of viewing the self were discussed. People from Western cultures, like the United States, most often view themselves as indepen- dent and unique individuals; they are part of an independent culture. People from many Asian cultures, such as Korea, have a more interdependent view of themselves; they are part of an interdependent culture. In interdependent cultures, people see themselves as enmeshed within a social context, with the sense of self arising out of social roles and relationships.

Ryan McVay/Lifesize/Thinkstock

Western values usually emphasize independence and uniqueness, while Asian values often focus more on social roles and ingroups.

a b

Test Yourself

• If your arguments are weak should you use a narrative appeal or a rational appeal?

With weak arguments you are better off with a narrative appeal. Stories are persuasive even when the arguments are weak. Rational appeals are not persuasive when argu- ments are weak.

• Are messages you initially discount ever persuasive?

Evidence of the sleeper effect suggests that over time arguments that you thought about but dismissed can become more persuasive.

iStockphoto/Thinkstock

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 To Whom—Characteristics of the Audience

Persuasive messages follow this pattern across cultures. For example, persuasive mes- sages in the United States focus more on uniqueness and individual preferences. In Korea, advertisements and other persuasive messages are more likely to focus on harmony with others, particularly family or other ingroups (Han & Shavitt, 1994). For example, an adver- tisement in Korea might describe a product as promoting family unity or the happiness of others. Recent research has shown that this difference can vary depending on genera- tion within a culture. Affluent Generation X consumers in China were more persuaded than older Chinese consumers by an advertisement for a car that emphasized uniqueness, an independent culture value (Zhang, 2010). These advertisements described the car as allowing one to break away from the pack rather than being a car a family could depend on. With greater exposure to Western values, these young people in China were more per- suaded by advertisers who emphasized values of uniqueness rather than family.

Age Between ages of 3 and 5, children develop the ability to understand that what is in their mind is different from what is in the minds of others, a concept called theory of mind. They also come to understand that others can be persuaded. As long as children believe that others think exactly as they do and know what they know, there is no need to per- suade (Slaughter, Peterson, & Moore, 2013). When children learn they can persuade oth- ers they also realize that others may be trying to persuade them. Because of this, children under the age of 5 do not recognize that advertisers are attempting to persuade them (McAlister & Cornwell, 2009).

In looking at persuasion for younger, middle-aged, and older adults, a paradox emerges. Younger adults tend to have fluid attitudes that solidify and remain the same through middle and older adulthood. For example, although young adults may dramatically change their political attitudes, once established these attitudes tend to remain the same after young adulthood (Alwin, Cohen, & Newcomb, 1991; Culter & Kaufman, 1975; Kros- nick & Alwin, 1989). However, in a research setting, participants of different ages show approximately equal propensity for persuasion, sometimes even more so for older adults (Wang & Chen, 2006). Why might attitudes remain the same over a lifetime, but show evidence of malleability in a laboratory setting?

Over their lifespan, people seem to be equally likely to change their attitudes. What many young adults have that most middle-aged and older adults do not have is a lot of new life experiences. When middle-aged and older adults experience new things, they are as likely to change as younger adults (Tyler & Schuller, 1991). What, then, seems to be driv- ing the greater flexibility in young adulthood is not age but experience. Older adults may be slightly more vulnerable to persuasion in laboratory persuasion tasks. This increased susceptibility can be traced to a decline in processing capacity with age. Older adults do not have quite as much working memory capacity as younger adults, and therefore, tend to be more persuaded by simple cues, like the number of arguments there are for a par- ticular option (Wang & Chen, 2006).

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 To Whom—Characteristics of the Audience

Test Yourself

• A message that focuses on family and relationships is more likely to be persuasive in what type of culture?

A message emphasizing interdependence is likely to be more persuasive in interdepen- dent cultures like those often found in Asia.

• Do older adults and middle-aged adults have the same capacity to be persuaded as younger adults?

Yes, though because of more stable life experiences the older groups tend to have more stable attitudes over time.

Self-Esteem Individuals’ level of self-esteem can influence how easy it is to persuade them. When it comes to differences among people, William McGuire (1968), an early researcher of per- suasion, proposed that persuasion depended on both receptivity and yielding. Receptivity means that one has the ability and willingness to pay attention and understand a message. Yielding means that the individual changes his or her mind as a result of the message. In order for a message to be considered persuasive, the individual must both be receptive to the message, and yield to it.

When evaluating the effect of self-esteem on persuasion, both receptivity and yielding are important (Rhodes & Wood, 1992). Individuals with low self-esteem who do not trust their own opinion are likely to yield to what others say. But those with low self-esteem lack receptivity: they are less likely to pay attention and remember a message. On the other end of the spectrum, receptivity is high among those with high self-esteem. Individ- uals with high self-esteem are likely to pay attention to and remember a message. Those with high self-esteem, however, are confident in their own judgments and therefore, less persuaded by what others say. Those with moderate self-esteem are likely to have the combination of receptivity and yielding that makes persuasion likely. While research find- ings support this claim, there are many variables that interact with self-esteem; given the right circumstances, individuals with high or low self-esteem are more persuadable (Sanaktekin & Sunar, 2008).

Test Yourself

• How do receptivity and yielding relate to self-esteem?

Individuals with high self-esteem tend to be high in receptivity but low in yielding while those with low self-esteem tend to be low in receptivity but high in yielding, leaving those in the middle with moderate receptivity and yielding.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 To Whom—Characteristics of the Audience

Elaboration Likelihood Model One model that brings together persuader, message, and audience variables is the elabo- ration likelihood model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). According to this model, people differ in their motivation and ability to process a persuasive message (see Figure 7.3). When people are motivated and able to process a message, they will take more time to think about and evaluate the message. “Elaboration” refers to this engagement with the mes- sage. Those high on the spectrum of being willing and able to process a message will use what researchers have named the central route to persuasion. When using the cen- tral route, individuals spend time and energy thinking about a message, evaluating the strength of the persuasive arguments. If messages are strong, people are likely to respond with positive attitude change, leading to behavior that is reflective of that change (Wu & Shaffer, 1987). Stronger attitudes tend to last longer and are less likely to be changed when attacked (Haugtvedt & Petty, 1992; Wu & Shaffer, 1987). But when arguments in a message are weak, those taking this route to persuasion may reject the message.

Figure 7.3: The elaboration likelihood model

According to the elaboration likelihood model, level of processing depends on motivation and ability to process the message.

Based on Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 123–205). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Low level of elaboration (due to depleted self-control, minimal time and energy available)

High level of elaboration (due to relevance, time and energy available, and need for cognition)

Central route Peripheral route

Thoughtful, attentive, and deep processing

Quick and superficial processing

The strength of the persuasive argument

Various persuasive cues

Leads to use of the

where messages are evaluated via

and changes in attitude depend on and changes in attitude depend on

where messages are evaluated via

Leads to use of the

Message

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 To Whom—Characteristics of the Audience

Social Psychology in Depth: Word of Mouth and Persuasion

When making decisions about products to buy, restaurants to visit, or movies to see, we often ask our friends and relatives. A friend who raves about a new movie is probably more likely to get you to the theater than an advertisement on television. This passing of infor- mation about products or services through informal social networks is known as “word of mouth.” Traditionally, word of mouth has its strongest impact when a relationship is close and the message is rich or vivid (Brown & Reingen, 1987; Kisielius & Sternthal, 1984; Swee- ney, Soutar, & Mazzarol, 2008).

A new frontier for persuasion through word of mouth is the Internet. Websites like Amazon .com offer customer reviews of the products they sell. These reviews, known as “electronic word of mouth” or “e-word” of mouth, can significantly affect popularity and sales (Ye, Law, Gu, & Chen, 2011; Zhang, Ye, Law, & Li, 2010). E-word of mouth is different from traditional word of mouth because many of the comments or reviews one might read about a product or service are from strangers, not friends or relatives.

Online shoppers tend to use certain clues to evaluate e-word of mouth. While considering the e-word of mouth for a product, shoppers look at the agreement among evaluations. If all reviewers are in agreement, all positive or all negative, that may sway a shopper (Chiou & Cheng, 2003). If the reviews for a camera you were considering purchasing were uni- formly negative, would you buy the camera? Probably not. One bad review among many, however, will not necessarily scare off a shopper. A set of perfect reviews may be seen as suspicious, too good to be true (Doh & Hwang, 2009). Overall, the greater the ratio of posi- tive to negative reviews, the more positive the attitude of the shopper and the greater the intention to buy the product (Doh & Hwang, 2009).

(continued)

We tend to elaborate when a message is relevant to us and we have the time and energy to process it (Petty & Brock, 1981; Petty, Wells, & Brock, 1976). For example, if a commercial for exercise equipment were shown during a television show you were watching, you might listen closely if you were thinking about buying such equipment and you had the time to listen. If you had a gym membership and were happy with your exercise routine, you might largely ignore the message. Our elaboration of a message can also depend on how much we feel the need to evaluate aspects of our lives in general. Need for cogni- tion is a term researchers use to describe differences between individuals concerning their desire to engage in, and tendency to enjoy, thinking (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982). In a scale to assess need for cognition, research participants are asked about their agreement with statements such as “I really enjoy a task that involves coming up with new solutions to problems” or “I would prefer a task that is intellectual, difficult, and important over one that is somewhat important but does not require much thought.” (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982, p.120). Whether or not something is personally relevant, people who are high in need for cognition tend to take the central route to persuasion (Cacioppo, Petty, & Morris, 1983).

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 To Whom—Characteristics of the Audience

Prior knowledge of a subject can influence people in a similar way. If you knew a great deal about exercise equipment, you would have an easier time processing the infomercial. In this instance, you would likely perceive a message with strong arguments as more con- vincing and quickly dismiss one with weak arguments or only an attractive communicator to recommend it (Wood & Kallgren, 1988). As with need for cognition, even when a topic is not personally relevant, someone with prior knowledge is still more likely to use the central route to persuasion (Chebat, Charlebois, & Gelinas-Chebat, 2001). Even if you are not presently in the market for exercise equipment, if you stumble across an advertisement for such equipment and have knowledge about equipment, you are likely to pay attention.

When people are less motivated or do not have the time or energy to process a message, they use the peripheral route to persuasion. With this route, individuals use other cues to evaluate the persuasive arguments. Some cues include: the number of arguments presented, the supposed credibility of the source, and how many other people seem to be persuaded (Maheswaran & Chaiken, 1991; O’Keefe, 2002; Petty, Caciopppo, & Schumann, 1983). For example, an online shopper using the peripheral route might be persuaded by the number of reviews for a product rather than the quality of those reviews (Sher & Lee, 2009). We are more likely to take the peripheral route to persuasion when our level of self-control is depleted due to prior use (Fennis, Janssen, & Vohs, 2009). For example, if you studied hard for a test, using all of your self-control to keep working through class material, an adver- tisement with an attractive communicator would be more persuasive to you, regardless of the strength of that communicator’s arguments. Recall from Chapter 2 that ego depletion creates a problem for later volitional acts. The peripheral route is used when we do not have the time or energy to consider a persuasive message carefully—when the ego is depleted.

The persuasive message itself can influence what route we would take. Personalization in websites is one way online retailers have sought to influence the buying public (Tam & Ho, 2005). Many companies that sell products online now keep track of where consum- ers look on their sites, what they click on, and what they eventually buy. With all of that information, the retailer is able to make suggestions for an individual site visitor or for

Social Psychology in Depth: Word of Mouth and Persuasion (continued)

Online reviews of products may be evaluated differently depending on the shopper. Online shoppers high in need for cognition were more persuaded by reviews that were under- standable, objective, and supported by relevant facts than by those that were of lower quality. The quality of the review has no impact on persuasion for those with low need for cognition (Lin, Lee, & Horng, 2011). A large number of reviews is more convincing to those low in need for cognition but does not affect persuasibility for those high in need for cogni- tion (Lin et al., 2011). Individuals who are largely unfamiliar with a product are also more swayed by the number of reviews for a product. Expertise of reviewers, not number of reviews, is more important to those who know more (SanJose-Cabezudo, Gutierrez-Arranz, & Gutierrez-Cillan, 2009).

The way individuals engage in e-word of mouth may be different in different countries. In a study of discussion boards in the United States and China, Chinese participants were more concerned about the country of origin, as opposed to the quality, of the products they were investigating. Researchers also found greater information seeking but less information pro- vision by the Chinese than the U.S. participants (Fong & Burton, 2008).

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 How—Persuasion Techniques

7.4 How—Persuasion Techniques

Watching a series of infomercials or a shopping channel, you may have noticed that some phrases keep coming up. Most offers are “for a limited time only.” The shopping channel may show you how many of the products are left and count them down until they are all gone. Some infomercials ask you to send no money now or offer you a full refund if you are not completely satisfied. Others offer the product and then let you know that if you order now you could get a free gift. All of these advertise- ments are based on persuasion techniques researched by social psychologists and others.

In this section, we will discuss several persuasive techniques. The foot-in-the-door tech- nique begins with a small request, and then moves to a larger request. With the lowball technique, a request is made and accepted before the full cost is revealed. The legitimiza- tion-of-paltry-favors technique validates small contributions. Later in this section we will look at persuasion techniques involving reciprocity, large initial requests, scarcity, and changing the focus of attention.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique If you have ever bought a car, you may have found yourself visiting a lot of dealerships or used-car lots. At a dealership you might be asked to sit in a new car or offered a test drive.

Test Yourself

• According to the elaboration likelihood model, if you had the time and interest to listen to a message, what type of message would be most persuasive?

When you have time and interest in a message you are more likely to use the central route to persuasion. Messages with strong arguments are most persuasive when using the central route.

• What is the relationship between need for cognition and the two different routes to persuasion?

People who are high in need for cognition tend to take the central route to persuasion.

• Are attitudes stronger when someone has been persuaded using the central route or the peripheral route?

Messages that persuade using the central route result in strong attitudes that are more resistant to change and more likely to be related to behavior.

the general shopper who visits and shows interest in a product. You may have visited a website that, after you purchase or even just click on a few products, offers suggestions of other products you might be interested in; that site is using personalization strategies. Because personalization makes messages relevant to individuals, according to the elabo- ration likelihood model it should lead to greater central route processing, and, when a product is good, potentially more purchasing of that product.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 How—Persuasion Techniques

In doing all of this the salesperson might say that there is no obligation, but is that really true? With the foot-in-the-door technique, a small request is made and agreed to, fol- lowed by a larger request. The salesperson might first ask if you would like to take a test drive, and only after the test drive ask if you would like to discuss financing options. Because people have said yes to the first request (test drive) they are more likely to say yes to the second request (discussing options and potentially moving to buy the car). The sec- ond request is really the target for the salesperson (Freedman & Fraser, 1966). Depending on the situation, this technique has been known to bring 15% to 25% compliance with the second request (Dillard, 1991).

Use of the foot-in-the-door technique requires a delicate balancing act. The first request needs to be small enough to be accepted, but the larger the first request, the more likely individuals will say yes to the second request (Seligman, Bush, & Kirsch, 1976). One explanation for the foot-in- the-door technique’s success is related to self-perception theory. Self-perception theory involves attitude formation; when we want to know what our attitudes are, we look at our behavior. With foot-in-the-door, the same process might be happening as people look to their initial behavior (agreeing to a small request) to determine what they should do for another behavior (agreeing to the larger, target request) (Burger, 1999; Burger & Caldwell, 2003). Foot-in-the-door technique is also applied outside of com- mercial purposes. When individuals visit a website for a charitable organization, those who agree to sign a petition are more likely to donate money than those who are not asked to sign (Gueguen & Jacob, 2001). In another study, researchers found that young women were more likely to agree to have coffee with a young man if they were first asked to give him directions or light his cigarette (Gueguen, Marchand, Pascual, & Lourel, 2008).

Lowball Technique Seeing a commercial on a website for a laptop at a low price, you click on the ad. You are in the market for a new laptop computer so you know this price is a good one. You quickly decide on this computer and, excited about your potential purchase, begin the ordering process. Partway through providing your name, address, credit card information, you realize that the color you had wanted was going to be $30 extra. Then you are offered a lengthened power cord that will be able to reach more outlets, as opposed to the shorter one that comes with the laptop, for an additional $45.99. Then you are offered antivirus software for only $39. By the time you pay the added shipping and processing fee, you have spent almost $150 more on the laptop than you originally intended.

This is an example of the lowball technique. An initial, reasonable request is made, but after the person agrees, additional items are added that make the overall request less reasonable. Because individuals have already made a commitment to the item (e.g., the computer) they

Expand Your Knowledge: Influence by Cialdini

Persuasion researcher Robert Cialdini has spent decades studying influence. His books are very acces- sible, and may be particularly interesting if you are planning to work in business or sales. His books are titled Influence: Science and Practice, Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion, and Yes!: 50 Scientifically Proven Ways to Be Persuasive.

Cialdini’s website: http://www.influenceatwork.com/.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 How—Persuasion Techniques

are reluctant to walk away. If they had known about all of the costs initially, however, it is unlikely they would have agreed (Cialdini, Cacioppo, Bassett, & Miller, 1978; Gueguen, Pas- cual, & Dagot, 2002). This tactic also frequently occurs outside of sales. Someone might ask you to hang up posters for an upcoming event as a favor. If you agreed, and then later found out you also needed to pick up the bulky, heavy posters from a location 10 minutes away, and transport them to where you are to hang them up, you might still do it, even though you might not have had you known all the details in the first place (Burger & Petty, 1981).

Unlike foot-in-the-door, with lowball the initial request is the target request. The initial request is small, or at least reasonable, and it is only when the full cost is revealed that individuals realize the large commitment they have made. With this technique, the per- suader needs to be careful to offer the initial product at a price people will be interested in and then make the additional requests reasonable enough so that the agreement continues as the deal becomes less of a deal. Comparing the foot-in-the-door and the lowball tech- nique, researchers have found that the lowball technique seems to work better at persuad- ing people to comply than the foot-in-the-door technique (Joule, 1987).

Legitimization-of-Paltry-Favors A neighbor child comes to your door, collecting money for a well-known charity. Your budget is tight and you already gave elsewhere, so you are about to respond with a polite no when the child says, “Even a penny will help.” You have a penny, right in your pocket, so you can’t really say no to the request. But you do not feel right about con- tributing just a penny. Reaching into your wallet, you pull out a couple of dollars and hand them over. Congratulations, you have just been persuaded by the technique called legitimization-of–paltry-favors.

As the name implies, the legitimization-of-paltry-favors technique catches us by making a very small contribution acceptable (Andrews, Carpenter, Shaw, & Boster, 2008). It is dif- ficult to refuse when even a very small amount is described as legitimate. But few would give a paltry amount even if it is acceptable, so we give more than just that penny. Notice that a penny was not suggested, but legitimized. With this technique, it should be clear that while a very small amount is okay, it is certainly not desired. Such a technique tends to increase the number of people who give while not affecting the amount each individual gives (Cialdini & Schroeder, 1976).

Test Yourself

• A teenager asks his mother if he can spend the weekend at a friend’s house. Later he asks if he could spend a week with his friend on a road trip. Which persuasion technique is this teenager using?

The foot-in-the-door technique. He first asks a relatively small request and then follows it with a larger request.

• When using the lowball technique why does the communicator not just ask for the entire request upfront?

If the communicator was to ask for what he or she wanted at the beginning it is more likely the person would refuse because the overall cost is too high.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 How—Persuasion Techniques

Test Yourself

• If someone gives you a free sample, are you more likely to buy the product?

Yes. Because of reciprocity, we feel some pressure to give back to those who have given us something.

Reciprocity Wandering through the supermar- ket, you come upon a small table that is offering free samples of gra- nola bars. You are hungry and the samples look good, so you take one. Smiling you thank the person offer- ing the samples, and you reach for a box of the bars. Considering that gra- nola bars were not on your shopping list and you may not have known this brand even existed before your encounter with the sample, why would you buy this product?

The technique being used here is rec- iprocity. Reciprocity is considered a rule of social behavior that appears to be present in most cultures, if not all. When others do something for us, we feel obligated to do something for them (Gould- ner, 1960; Wright, 1994). Communicators use our natural tendency toward reciprocity to get us to do what we otherwise might not. When provided with something we did not ask for, we tend to reciprocate, at times giving more in return than was invested in the original gift. In one study published in the 1970s, some research participants were given a 10-cent soda. Later in the study, when the participants were asked to buy 25-cent raffle tickets, the ones who had been given the soda were more likely to buy the raffle tickets than those who had not been given a soda (Regan, 1971). In another example of reciprocity, research- ers have found that food servers who provide their customers with mints or candy get increased tips (Lynn & McCall, 2000). Although reciprocity will be slightly higher in a public context, we still tend to reciprocate, even when our behavior is private (Whatley, Webster, Smith, & Rhodes, 1999).

Even an offer of reciprocity that is refused is helpful. In a field study in France, researchers asked smokers on the street for a cigarette. When the researchers offered a small amount of money in exchange the money was usually refused, but the smokers were more likely to give up a cigarette (Guéguen & Pascual, 2003). Reciprocity is so natural for humans that those who are persuaded do not always recognize reciprocity as the reason for their change in attitude or behavior (Cialdini, Green, & Rusch, 1992).

Corbis/SuperStock

After sampling free food at a supermarket, you may feel inclined to purchase that food in reciprocation of the free sample. The supermarket has persuaded you to buy via reciprocity.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 How—Persuasion Techniques

Social Psychology in Depth: Resistance to Persuasion

Persuasive messages are designed to change our minds but we are not without defense. In the battle for our wallets and our minds, resistance to persuasion plays a part. One way in which we resist persuasive messages is through arguing our own point of view, called counterarguing. Hearing a message you do not agree with, you come up with a number of arguments why your position is right and the alternate position is wrong. Such an activity will have an effect on your initial attitude. When people counterargue successfully, they become more certain of their initial attitude, particularly when the other message comes from an expert source (Tormala & Petty, 2004a; Tormala & Petty, 2004b). However, when people believe they have done a poor job at counterarguing, they may actually become less certain of their attitudes. The attitudes themselves may not change, but they are now more vulnera- ble to future attacks and are less likely to predict behavior (Tormala, Clarkson, & Petty, 2006).

At times we resist persuasion not because of well-thought-out arguments but simply because we are reacting to manipulation. Reactance is our response to threatened free- dom; we do the opposite of what someone wants us to do because we want to reassert our right to make our own decisions. If a high-pressure salesperson is advocating a particular product, we may choose another because we want to assert our freedom to make our own choices. We generally think of reactance as a simple knee-jerk reaction to a threat to freedom, but reactance can also lead us to the kind of counterarguing described in the first paragraph (Silvia, 2006).

While we can and do resist persuasive messages, our view of our vulnerability to persuasion is distorted. We believe we are less vulnerable to persuasion than others (Douglas & Sutton, 2004). While we tend to judge the vulnerability of others accurately, we judge ourselves as being less vulnerable to persuasion than we really are. When our attitudes do change, we underestimate the degree of change (Bem & McConnell, 1970; Markus, 1986). For example, if a salesperson convinced us to buy a product, we might say we were leaning toward that choice already even if we were not.

When it comes to resistance to persuasion, our vulnerability is higher when we have exerted self-control. Previous experiences that have resulted in ego depletion, such as controlling our emotions, making decisions, or engaging in an undesired task, make us more vulnerable to persuasive messages. With depleted resources we are less able to counterargue (Burkley, 2008; Wheeler, Brinol, & Hermann, 2007). The reverse also appears to be true: Engaging in resistance to persuasion makes us less able to engage in tasks requiring our self-control (Burkley, 2008).

Door-in-the-Face Technique As you watch an infomercial for exercise equipment, the advertiser shows four different machines and the price for each. As you contemplate the expense of such equipment, you quickly reject the idea of ever owning exercise equipment. A request to buy four different machines is too much. But wait, the advertiser says, you can afford exercise equipment. The advertiser then displays a machine that will do everything the first four machines can and is small and relatively inexpensive. Relieved that there is a product you can afford, you pick up the phone to order one of your own.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 How—Persuasion Techniques

Unlike foot-in-the-door, where a small request is followed by a larger request, the target request, the door-in-the-face technique begins with a large request. When the message recipient says no to the first request, the persuader follows with a second, more reasonable request, the actual target of the communication. In the original study on the technique, college students were asked if they would be willing to counsel juvenile delinquents for 2 hours a week for 2 years. The students declined. Then, those students and others were asked if they would be willing to take the juveniles to the zoo for a day. Of the students who had not been previously asked to make a 2-year commitment, about 17% agreed to chaperone the kids. Of the students who had been asked and refused the 2-year commit- ment, 50% agreed to the chaperoning (Cialdini et al., 1975).

One explanation for why this technique works has to do with the discomfort we feel when we refuse someone’s request. In the second request the persuader makes a concession, so we feel as though we should make a reciprocal concession (Turner, Tamborini, Limon, & Zuckerman-Hyman, 2007). Wanting the students’ help with juveniles for 2 years, the per- suader appears to be making a concession with just a day at the zoo. Wanting to do noth- ing, the students make a concession from nothing to a day at the zoo. Further research has found that emphasizing the concession made by the person making the request increases persuasion or feelings of obligation (Abrahams & Bell, 1994; Ebster & Neumayr, 2008). Perhaps because of this, compliance is highest when requests are close to one another in time (ideally within the same interaction), and are made by the same individual (Cann, Sherman, & Elkes, 1975; Guéguen, Jacob, & Meineri, 2011; O’Keefe & Hale, 2001). It seems the person needs to see a clear connection between the first request and the second request in order to feel a need for reciprocal concession.

As with the foot-in-the-door technique, there needs to be a balance between the levels of demand of the requests. In the initial study on the technique, the first request was a very demanding request that everyone was expected to refuse (counseling juveniles 2 hours per week for 2 years). When moderate initial requests are used, compliance actually declines in some studies (Even-Chen, Yinon, & Bizman, 1978). In a meta-analysis of studies on the technique, researchers found that the technique works better in gaining verbal agreement rather than persuading people to behave differently (Feeley, Anker, & Aloe, 2012).

Studies comparing the amount of persuasion found for the door-in-the-face technique in contrast with the foot-in-the-door technique find that the door-in-the-face technique tends to be more effective (Pascual & Guéguen, 2005; Rodafinos, Vucevic, & Sideridis, 2005). For example, in one study researchers were able to get children to do more academic work by using the door-in-the-face technique than they got when they used the foot-in-the-door technique, or simply asking the children to do the work (Chan & Au, 2011). In another study, when comparing the foot-in-the-door, door-in-the-face, and the lowball technique, the door-in-the-face technique once again came out on top. The door-in-the-face technique resulted in the most donated money in comparison with the other two techniques (Wang, Brownstein, & Katzey, 1989).

That’s-not-all Technique On late-night television you might find an infomercial that explains an exercise machine and the wonderful things it does. After offering the product and telling you the price,

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 How—Persuasion Techniques

the announcer says, “and that’s not all” and offers some deluxe exercise towels that you will get with your purchase. When sellers offer a product and, before the customer can respond, offer something else with the sale or offer to lower the price, they are using the that’s-not-all technique.

This technique might be effective due to reciprocity. The seller is seen as willing to negoti- ate the sale of his or her product, so the buyer should reciprocate that flexibility by buying. Another factor may be a concept known as anchoring. The initial price for the individual piece is seen as the anchor. When the price is lowered or additional things are added, the consumer sees this as a good deal. If originally offered the entire package at the lower price, consumers take that as the anchor and do not view it as a good deal (Burger, 1986).

The that’s-not-all technique seems to work best when the initial request is reasonable (Burger, Reed, DeCesare, Rauner, & Rozolis, 1999). This means that when using the tech- nique, sellers need to be careful in setting the initial price. A high initial price can shock people into considering whether they really need the product or really need to spend that much money. High initial prices tend to lead to greater refusal when the that’s-not-all technique is used. Adding additional items to the initial offering may not alleviate that initial shock (Pollock, Smith, Knowles, & Bruce, 1998).

Scarcity Often advertisements for products will emphasize the fact that the item is only available for a limited time. Deals available on the day after Thanksgiving are sometimes only available for a few hours after the store has opened. Why do advertisers limit the time frame for such bargains? Overall, people do not like it when their freedom to act is restricted. When prod- ucts may not be available for long, we tend to buy those products so we can access them if we want. This type of behavior is called reactance. Reactance is acting in a way that pro- tects one’s freedom. Although we may have never intended to buy a certain product in the first place, if we think it will no longer be available we may purchase it. Researchers have found evidence of reactance in a wide variety of circumstances. When we feel like others are restricting our freedom in a parking lot by waiting for our parking space, we may actually stay in the space longer than if no one was waiting (Ruback & Juieng, 1997).

Test Yourself

• Why does an initial refusal with the door-in-the-face technique lead to later persuasion?

Because the initial request is refused and the communicator makes a concession to a smaller request, the target of the technique makes a reciprocal concession, agreeing to that smaller request.

• How does the that’s-not-all technique work?

With the that’s-not-all technique before potential buyers can refuse an initial request additional positive incentives are added.

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Limited-time offers are not the only type of offers for which we have this reaction. We may also buy when we believe there are only a few of the product in existence, in other words, when the number of items is restricted. Any advertisement that refers to the product as being a limited edition or in short supply leads us to a similar reaction. This reaction may rely in part on our need for uniqueness (Lynn, 1991). We do not want to look like or have the same things as everyone else, so we buy rare products to express our individuality. When commercials offer a product for a limited time or describe the limited number avail- able, the advertisers are using scarcity.

When products are seen as available for only a limited time, it is possible that respondents actually increase their scrutiny of the persuasive message. Knowing the product may only be available briefly provides motivation to think about the merits of the message (Bran- non & Brock, 2001). Scarcity works particularly well in romantic contexts (such as when watching a romantic movie) but can backfire when in the context of fearful events (such as when watching a scary movie). Romantic situations remind us how scarce opportuni- ties can be; after all, how often does Mr. or Ms. Right come along? In these situations you want to stand out from the crowd so you can be noticed by that potential significant other or impress the partner you have. When we are thinking of romance, therefore, a commer- cial that tells us to get one of the few products available is more likely to be persuasive (Griskevicius et al., 2009).

Test Yourself

• The countdown clock on an infomercial for the time a product is available is relying on what tendency?

This technique relies on the human tendency to react when one’s freedom is being threatened, called reactance. When we think a product may not be around very much longer we move to buy it so it can remain available to us.

Pique Technique Within some contexts, we automatically refuse anyone’s attempts to persuade us. When encountering a panhandler, for example, the majority of people walk on by and do not give any money. Two techniques involve disrupting that automatic tendency toward refusal, making compliance more likely—the pique technique and the disrupt-then-reframe tech- nique. The pique technique works by disrupting attention with an odd request. Rather than asking passersby if they could spare some change, a panhandler might ask if the person could spare 37 cents. Imagine your own response to such a request. Though you might have simply kept going the odd request makes you stop and perhaps ask why the person wants exactly 37 cents. In research on the technique, unique requests resulted in an almost 60% increase in compliance (Santos, Leve, & Pratkanis, 1994).

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 How—Persuasion Techniques

Does the reason for wanting 37 cents matter? When a person asking for 37 cents gave either a specific reason (“that’s all I need to have enough for the bus fare”), or a vague reason (“I need to buy something”), the amount of compliance with the request did not change. Although people did give more money when they asked a question rather than if the requester just used the pique technique, whether there was a specific reason given or a vague reason the average amount of money given was essentially the same (Burger, Hor- nisher, Martin, Newman, & Pringle, 2007). It seems that the actual reason does not matter, only that the passerby was intrigued enough to ask about the request.

Disrupt-Then-Reframe Technique Another technique relying on disrupting the general tendency to refuse requests is the disrupt-then-reframe technique. With this technique, a request is made in an unusual way and then the requester reframes that request. For example, in door-to-door sales of Christ- mas cards, women described that they were selling the cards to raise money for a school for the developmentally disabled. If people said they wanted to know the price of the cards the woman said “They’re 300 pennies. . . that’s $3. It’s a bargain.” The odd way of stating the price, 300 pennies, changed the way people thought about the request, and then, by stating such a price is a bargain, the 300-penny price was reframed (Davis & Knowles, 1999).

One hypothesis for how this works is that the unusual request interrupts usual thinking processing so people do not have a ready response. The reframing then provides them with an easy response. “It’s a bargain” gives people something to latch on to while they are trying to process what 300 pennies really means and whether 300 pennies for a few Christ- mas cards is a good or a bad deal. Although the technique works in both requests related to charity and in sales settings, it is more effective in charity related contexts (Carpenter & Boster, 2009; Fennis, Das, & Pruyn, 2006).

Test Yourself

• How does a communicator pique attention using the pique technique?

With the pique technique the communicator makes an unusual request, such as asking for 37 cents, thereby piquing attention.

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CHAPTER 7

Table 7.1 Persuasion techniques: Definitions and examples

Technique Definition Example

Foot-in- the-door

An initial small request is made and accepted. A large request, the target request, is then made.

You are asked to sign a petition to support blood donation. After you sign, you are asked to donate blood.

Lowball An initial request, the target request, is made, but only later are the full costs are revealed.

You are asked to volunteer 20 minutes of your time. Only later is it revealed that the time will involve blood donation, with accompanying needles and slight pain.

Legitimization- of-paltry- favors

Small favors are described as acceptable, although not desired.

A small donation to support blood drives, just 25 cents, is acceptable, although a larger donation would be appreciated.

Reciprocity A request is made after a gift has been given.

After receiving a cookie you are asked if you would be willing to donate blood.

Door-in- the-face

A large request is made and refused. Then the target request is made.

You are asked if you could volunteer 2 hours a week for the next year. When you refuse, you are asked if you could spend just a half hour now donating blood.

That’s-not-all A large request is made, but before the individual can refuse additional incentives are added.

You are asked to donate blood, but before you say no you are told you will get a cookie and a sticker and your name will be published in the paper.

Scarcity Products or opportunities are presented as being limited in number or as only available for a limited time.

The blood bank tells you the special post-donation cookies are only available today for the first 20 people who give blood.

Pique Attention is disrupted by an oddly framed request.

You are asked if you want to save the lives of three children today.

Disrupt-then- reframe

An unusual request is made and then framed in a positive way.

When asked to give blood you are told it will only take 3,600 seconds, a very short time to give.

Conclusion In evaluating persuasion we need to take into account where the message comes from, what the message contains, and the intended audience. All of these factors interact with one another, so a particular communicator may be quite persuasive using a certain type of message with a certain audience but less persuasive when conditions change. Persuaders have a large and varied bag of tricks. Each persuasion technique can affect behavior or attitudes when used carefully and correctly.

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CHAPTER 7Chapter Summary

Chapter Summary

Who—Characteristics of the Persuader Those who have credibility are most persuasive. Credible sources convince their audience they are expert and trustworthy. Attractive sources tend to be more persuasive. Persua- sion is also higher with sources we like.

What—Characteristics of the Message Some amount of fear and guilt can make a message more persuasive. Whether a per- suader wants to use a gain-framed message or a loss-framed message depends on the type of behavior being encouraged. Two-sided messages are more persuasive than one-sided messages, but only if refutations of the opposing arguments are offered. When a message is not a strong one it can become more persuasive with time through the sleeper effect.

To Whom—Characteristics of the Audience Culture, self-esteem, and age all affect persuasion. The elaboration likelihood model helps us sort out when persuasive messages might be persuasive. When people are attentive and have the time and energy to think about a message, the central route can be more persuasive. When people are distracted or uninterested, messages that take the peripheral route are more persuasive.

How—Persuasion Techniques With the foot-in-the-door technique persuaders make small requests and then a larger, target request. Compliance with the larger request is higher when an initial request is accepted than if no initial request is made. For the lowball technique the target request is made and accepted because it seems reasonable. Only later are additional costs revealed. When small favors are legitimized, larger favors may follow with the legitimization-of- paltry-favors technique. Small gifts may provide large returns with reciprocity. When given a gift we feel compelled to give something in return. Persuasion following large requests are hallmarks of the door-in-the-face technique and the that’s-not-all technique. When large requests are refused and then a smaller target request is offered, compliance with the second request is higher; this is the door-in-the-face technique. With the that’s- not-all technique, a large request that might be refused may be accepted if additional things are added to it before the target of the request can refuse. Techniques involving scarcity stress that products or options may be available in limited quantities or for a limited time so that the products will receive special consideration. Feeling our freedom threated, we respond by buying the product or taking the option provided by the per- suader. Gaining our attention or disrupting our thought processes and then reframing the request are used to increase persuasion with the pique technique and the disrupt-then- reframe technique.

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CHAPTER 7Key Terms

central route to persuasion According to the elaboration likelihood model, the route taken when individuals have the time and energy to process a message deeply, evaluating the strength of the persuasive arguments.

credibility Believability; a factor in whether a message is persuasive. Its two aspects are expertise and trustworthiness.

disrupt-then-reframe technique A per- suasion technique in which a request is made in an unusual way and then the requester positively reframes that request.

door-in-the-face technique Persuasion technique that involves beginning with a large request, which is refused, and fol- lowing with a smaller request, the target request.

elaboration likelihood model A model that proposes two routes to persuasion: the central route, used when individuals have time and energy to engage with the message, and the peripheral route, used when individuals are lacking in time and energy and rely on other cues to help them make decisions.

expertise One aspect of credibility, along with trustworthiness. Expertise is found in a communicator who appears to have knowledge and is able to communicate it.

foot-in-the-door technique Persuasion technique that involves making a small request followed by a larger request, the target request.

gain framed A message that focuses on the benefits of a behavior.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What other communicator characteristics do you think might make a communi- cator more persuasive?

2. Consider the last infomercial you have seen. How did characteristics of the com- municator, the message, and your own interest in the product affect the degree to which you were persuaded?

3. If you are currently trying to persuade another person or group of people, how might you use the content from this chapter to help you?

4. In what circumstances might taking the peripheral route to persuasion be more appropriate? When might the central route be more appropriate?

5. Look through a magazine or your junk mail. What persuasion techniques seem to be used in those media?

6. Have you noticed use of the persuasion techniques covered in the chapter while watching commercials?

7. How might you arm yourself against falling victim to these techniques?

Key Terms

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CHAPTER 7Key Terms

legitimization-of-paltry-favors technique A persuasion technique that involves mak- ing a very small contribution acceptable. It is difficult to not give when even a very small amount is described as legitimate.

loss framed A message that focuses on what might be lost if a behavior is not done.

lowball technique A persuasion tech- nique involving an initial, reasonable request to which additional things are added that make the overall request less reasonable. People tend to maintain com- mitment to the request, despite the fact they would likely have refused if they had known all the costs initially.

need for cognition An individual differ- ence in how much people tend to engage in and enjoy thinking.

peripheral route to persuasion According to the elaboration likelihood model, this is the route taken when people do not have the time or energy to process a message. With this route, individuals use other cues to evaluate the persuasive arguments.

pique technique A persuasion technique that works by disrupting attention with an odd request.

reactance The behavior one undertakes when one’s freedom is threatened, such as when an item is available for a limited time.

reciprocity The tendency for people to feel that when others do something for them, they must reciprocate.

scarcity A persuasion technique where a product or option appears to only be available for a limited time or in a limited amount.

sleeper effect Occurs when a message becomes more persuasive with time.

stealing thunder Presenting information that is potentially harmful before the oppo- site side can in order to take away some of the shock value that information might otherwise have.

that’s-not-all technique A persuasion technique involving making an offer and, before the customer can respond, lowering the price or offering additional products.

transportation The joining of feelings, attention, and thoughts in the context of a story. Transportation involves getting lost in a story.

trustworthy One aspect of credibility, along with expertise. Describes a commu- nicator who appears to be sharing accurate information.

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