Annotated Bibliography Essay
Successful and Safe Operation ‐ A Combination of Individual, Team and Organization Training
Trine Marie Stene1, Brit‐Eli Danielsen1 and Rune Kristiansen Valle2 1NTNU Social Research, Trondheim, Norway 2NTNU Psychological Institute, Trondheim, Norway [email protected] brit‐[email protected] [email protected] Abstract: Organisational performance often depends on an ability to turn employee knowledge into effective knowledge. In high risk organisations knowledge management is essential for safe and successful operations. This paper is related to human space flight activities and illustrates management of activities on‐board the International Space Station (ISS). In order to have a coherent and common understanding of best practice, standardized procedures are emphasised for all European space activities. Ground centres form a network involved in conducting decentralized payload operations, including operation planning and execution in cooperation with other ESA (European Space Agency) and NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) control centres. The aim of this paper is to present and discuss experiences from an experiment on‐board ISS in light of organisational knowledge management. The focus is primarily on knowledge learning and training as an organisational knowledge management strategy for safe and successful operations. In addition to individual learning and training of console personnel, team and organizational aspects of knowledge creation and training is presented and discussed. The paper gives an example from preparation and planning of an experiment called Gravi2. N‐ USOC (Norwegian User Support and Operations Centre) is responsible for the experiment. Keywords: knowledge creation, individual learning, social learning, organisational knowledge management systems, human space flight, project management planning
1. Background Organisational performance often depends on an ability to turn employee knowledge into effective knowledge. In high risk organisations it is particularly important that employees have knowledge on how to cope with risks in order to perform safety acts, thus avoiding incidents and accidents. In addition, it is crucial to have the performance and intention to comply with the management system. Several means are used by the organisations to handle the gap between prescribed and actual practise e.g. routines, procedures and employee training. Knowledge management perspectives in this paper are mainly based on a literature review by Alavi & Leidner (2001). The authors argue that knowledge is personalized information related to e.g. facts, concepts, interpretations, procedures and judgements. Knowledge in organizations is often divided in the dimensions: tacit knowledge involving both cognitive and technical elements (rooted in action, experience and involvement in specific context) and explicit knowledge (articulated, codified and communicated in symbolic and/or natural language). Safety depends on individual's knowledge as well as collective practices and organisational culture. In addition to share their knowledge with others, it is critical that individuals have a certain common knowledge base. Knowledge management (KM) systems involve distinct but interrelated processes of (1) knowledge creation, (2) knowledge storage and retrieval, (3) knowledge transfer, and (4) knowledge application (Ibid). Knowledge creation or construction in an organisation involves individual, social and collaborative processes. Individual knowledge creation may be achieved by exercising; explicit knowledge is converted to tactic knowledge through internalisation processes. Individuals may share experiences (and contribute in the social and cultural knowledge construction) in face‐to‐face interactions, through dialogue and collaboration, and/ or in virtual space interaction and corresponds. Knowledge storage and retrieval cover the organisational memory, and may include e.g. individual knowledge and network of individuals, written documentation, documented organisational procedures, expert systems and electronic databases. Literature has distinguished between individual memory (based on a person's observation, experiences and actions) and collective/ organisational memory (knowledge from the past,
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experiences, and events influencing present organisational activity). Organisational memory includes e.g. culture, work processes, formal roles and information archives. Technology can be effective tools in enhancing organisational memory e.g. database management systems and multimedia databases. Knowledge transfer occurs between individuals, from individuals to groups, between groups, across groups, and from the group to the organisation. It is important to transfer knowledge to locations where it is needed and can be used. Communication processes and information flows drive knowledge transfer in organisations. The concept includes elements like: perceived value of the source unit's knowledge, motivational disposition of the source (i.e. willingness to share knowledge), transmission channels, motivational dispositions of the receiving unit (i.e. willingness to acquire knowledge from the source), and the ability to use knowledge. Transfer may use formal (e.g. training) or informal (e.g. coffee breaks, meetings) mechanisms. Knowledge application in an organisation is essential. Three primary mechanisms for the integration of knowledge to create organisational capacity are: directives, organisational routines, and self‐contained teams. Directives refer to the specific set of rules, standards, procedures, and instructions developed through the conversation of specialists’ tacit knowledge to explicit and integrated knowledge for efficient communication to non‐specialists. Organisational routines refer to the development of task performance and coordination patterns, interactions protocols, and process specifications that allow individuals to apply and integrate their specialized knowledge without the need to articulate and communicate what they know to others. Routines may be relatively simple or high complex. Creation of self‐contained task teams refer to forming of teams of individuals with prerequisite knowledge and speciality in order to solve problems e.g. in situations where task uncertainty and complexity prevent the specification of directive and organisational routines.
2. Human space flight experiments ‐ knowledge management to prepare for safe and successful operations
This section present knowledge management processes from human space flight. The presentation is based on preparation and planning of the Gravi2 experiment on‐board the International Space Station (ISS). The focus in this paper is the preparation phase of the Gravi2 experiment. The experiment took place in May 2014. ISS is a multinational laboratory for space environment research. The research projects on‐board are based on cooperative management by five space agencies around the world; NASA (USA), ESA (Europe), Roscosmos (Russia), CSA (Canada) and JAXA (Japan). They jointly share the responsibility, regulated by several intergovernmental and inter‐agency treaties and agreements. Activities and components on‐board ISS are supported by a network of physically distributed control centres, operators and engineering expertise on ground. N‐USOC (Norwegian User Support and Operations Centre) is one of seven European ground control centres forming a network involved in conducting decentralized payload operations in ESA’s Columbus module. The centres are responsible for operating and supporting real‐ time experiments. N‐USOC is responsible for the Gravi2 experiment, including operations planning and execution.
2.1 Knowledge storage and retrieval In high risk organisations knowledge management is essential for safe and successful operations. Thus, safety procedures and requirements are crucial in human space flight. Standardized procedures help regulating the research activities and being a basis for coherent and common understanding of best practice. ESA safety procedures and requirements As a basis for all activities, some requirements and procedures regulate space agency operations. The European Cooperation for Space Standardization (ECSS) is established to develop a coherent, single set of user‐ friendly standards for use in all European space activities. ECSS documents include standards, handbooks and technical memoranda. The purpose is to make maximum use of existing standards, adopt commonly used international standards, and ensure coordination and liaison with standardization organisations. The safety standard (ECSS‐Q‐ST‐40C) defines program and technical requirements aiming at protecting flight and ground personnel, the launch vehicle, associated payloads, ground support equipment, the general public,
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public and private property, the space system and associated segments and the environment from hazards associated with European space systems. The defined severity of consequences is illustrated in Table 1. The consequences of an issue can be short or long term. Their evaluation is critical for the system safety.
Table 1: Severity of consequences
2.2 Knowledge creation Operation and support of ISS experiments presuppose competent and qualified console personnel. The ground control centre personnel have to be certified and have some basic knowledge. Training requirements Training is crucial for knowledge, skills and performance in order to comply with standards. ESA’s safety standard (ESA 2009) specifies five training issues: (1) General, (2) Product specific training, (3) General awareness briefings, (4) Basic technical training and (4) Records. General for all related safety training is that: “any personnel working – permanently or occasionally – with systems that can have hazardous properties shall have three major aspects: (1) general awareness briefings …, (2) basic technical training …, and (3) product specific training.” Certification and individual training Certification of N‐USOC console personnel is to a large extent based on individual competence acquirement. In order to achieve formal certification, the N‐USOC operators have to acquire the following qualifications (Danielsen & Stene, 2013):
Payload knowledge (technical, operational and science knowledge regarding the payload)
Display knowledge (monitor and understand the information in the displays where the telemetry from the payload is received)
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Handling digital and auditory tools (use the different operations support tools efficiently)
Procedure knowledge (follow the established rules in the ops environment such as voice loop protocol, Joint Operations Interface Procedures, Flight Rules)
Planning (understand the information in the OSTPV, be able to plan and re‐plan)
Anomaly handling (be able to handle anomalies and unforeseen events, use of ESA/NASA anomaly reporting systems, knowledge about previous anomalies, involve engineering support)
Communication (be able to communicate with the distributed team, other control centres, engineering support, scientists)
Situational awareness (awareness and understanding of the operational situation in the distributed team)
Workload and stress (be able to multitask and handle stressful situations)
A dedicated training program (N‐USOC, 2010) describes the process leading towards formal certification as an N‐USOC console operator. The teachers are certified N‐USOC staff giving lectures in their area of expertise. The process is flexible and interactive and can be adjusted to the different individual prerequisites. The training consists of classroom lessons, hands on in the control‐room and on ground models, as well as simulations and on‐the job training (OJT). Gravi2 experiment knowledge creation Gravi2 is a biological experiment where lentil seeds are grown in an automated greenhouse on‐board ISS. An identical ground facility model is located at N‐USOC. The ground model is used in the preparation phase, e.g. equipment tests, procedure tests and simulator training of personnel. When involving the USOC that are going to be in charge of real time operation of the particular experiment, some scientific requirements and product/equipment design are already prepared and developed. In addition to basic knowledge as console personnel, the operators need to develop experiment specific knowledge. For each experiment procedures for control centre operation and support is being development is cooperation with scientists, product designers and other involved control centres. Thus, in addition to training personnel for the particular experiment, the preparation phase includes writing procedures for real‐time operation and validating and improving products/ equipment. Individual knowledge creation. During the experiment execution, two N‐USOC operators are required. To cope with the complexity and reduce risks for miscommunication, work overload and manual error, N‐USOC has implemented an operations support concept that divides the Gravi2‐related control room tasks between two operators (Mohammad et al, 2013). The two operator positions are called (1) EMCS Ops and (2) N‐USOC Ops. These positions are geographically located next to each other in the same room:
EMCS Ops (1) is responsible for remote control and direct monitoring of a payload called European Modular Cultivation System (EMCS). The work includes coordination with NASA and crew during crew activities directly related to the EMCS facility. EMCS Ops communicate indirectly with crew via a dedicated NASA position/ communication channel
N‐USOC Ops (2) is responsible for the science, planning and all operations outside the EMCS facility. This includes activities related to using another payload (Biolab) and crew activities. Thus, N‐USOC Ops communicates and coordinates activities with ESA and another European USOC (MUSC). N‐USOC Ops communicates indirectly with crew via a dedicated ESA position/ communication channel
2.3 Knowledge transfer ‐ preparation for the Gravi2 experiment A dedicated person, called Exam, is responsible for integration and operation of each particular experiment. Training is a central part of the preparation for real time operations of ISS experiments. Experiment specific training is always performed as part of the preparation before an upcoming experiment or activity on‐board ISS. The training exercises usually give input to improvements of the procedures as well. The ESA standards states that training shall be implemented during a project lifecycle. Events that should be considered are e.g.
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Assessment of anomalies, deviations, waivers, etc.
The impact of newly imposed requirements
Furthermore, the safety standard emphasizes the importance of worst case analysis: “The system shall meet the safety requirements under the worst case natural and induced environments define for the project”. The undesirable events should be identified and classified into categories related to the severity of their failures consequences. All undesirable events, whose occurrence can jeopardize compromise or degrade the mission success, should be assessed at the highest product level (overall system including space and ground segments). Training methods for knowledge transfer in the group There are several training methods used by N‐USOC group to prepare for an experiment on‐board the ISS; classroom lessons, lessons learned from earlier experiments, Anomaly Reports, hands‐on in the control‐room and on ground models, Experiment Sequence Tests, debriefs and creation of “What‐if” scenarios. Normally the experiments conducted at N‐USOC have little potential for causing catastrophic or critical safety consequences. Thus, up to the present, the most severe consequences have been classified at level 4 (see Table 1); “Loss of science”. However, the severity level of the Gravi2 experiment may be classified at level 2; “Temporarily disabling but not life‐threatening injury”. The reason for this is the use of toxic fluid. During real time operations the crew on‐board ISS have to handle this potential risk. Worst case analysis is important for safe operations and in accordance with the ESA safety and dependability standards. Regarding Gravi2, the N‐USOC team prepared a timeline including specific activities. In addition, the activity schedule flow was commented and discussed regarding: anomaly reports, lessons learned from past operations, and “What‐if” scenarios. Critical scenarios got special attention. Different ways of handling possible scenarios was discussed and used as a basis for procedure development and later training sessions. Preparation for real time operation for the whole team started with classroom lessons about the Gravi2 science, as well as ground and crew operations. An important part was identified hazards and how hazard control is implemented in both ground and crew activities. Simulations are regarded as the most important method for creating a coherent performance regarding safety and science (Coelho et al, 2013). In the preparation for the Gravi2 experiment, simulations are central in order to validate and verify procedures, and develop operator competence. The operator should be able to handle both normal procedures and deviations from them. Simulators are better suited than other methods for training skills like communication, situational awareness and stress handling. In a simulated environment the trainees will spend time learning valuable lessons in a "safe" virtual environment, yet living a lifelike experience (Danielsen & Stene 2013). Transfer of knowledge between groups and organisations Organisational knowledge processes may involve individual and group processes (Alavi & Leidner, 2001). One group may have acquired and applied knowledge to a given situation and coded this knowledge in the form of a certain routine. This “best practice” may then be shared with other groups by allowing access to group memory systems or by facilitating intergroup dialogue. N‐USOC as a part of a larger team. Gravi2 operations required close cooperation with other control centres, as well as engineering support and science teams. Contrary to prior experiments, the Gravi2 used an additional biological facility. N‐USOC was the Facility Responsible Centre (FRC) for one research facility and the German MUSC (Microgravity User Support Centre) for the other. In addition to the two USOCs, the Gravi2 experiment included cooperation with control centres at ESA and NASA and crew on‐board. Communication and coordination is complex, since both the NASA and ESA network was involved. Moreover, because Gravi2 used different biology facilities on‐board ISS, interaction was essential between the two European control centres N‐USOC and MUSC. Non‐overlapping coordinating responsibilities were defined during the integration phase.
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Joint Multi‐Segment Training (JMST) JMST is integrated simulations and team work training under the responsibility of NASA. JMSTs are high‐ fidelity, flight‐specific simulations across various station segments to practice communications and coordination among the different centres, sometimes including NASA's Mission Control Center in Houston (MCC‐H) and crew (or surrogate). The Gravi2 training sessions simulated some parts of the whole experiment. The whole experiment period was four days, and each simulation lasted 6 – 8 hours. In February 2013 and January 2014 two simulations were arranged as JMST. For N‐USOC operators participating in “live” simulations, the simulation sessions were performed in the N‐USOC control centre, using the same tools and interacting with control centres internationally just as real‐time operations. The objective of these simulations was for the entire community to train for the Gravi2 experiment. It was not part of the certification of console personnel. Thus, N‐USOC certified console personnel were required. In order to obtain the necessary qualifications, the console personnel have gone through specialized training and certification (Danielsen & Stene, 2013). Content. These console operator trainings included topics as overview of the operations flow/concept, the science involved, ground commanding, crew operations and the “What‐if” scenarios. Participants. In addition to NASA Payload Operation and Integration Center (POIC) all others relevant payload control centres and training facilities was involved, including the European Control Centre (COL‐CC), "crew", Payload Developers and USOCs participated. As per normal, NASA POIC was in charge of the two JMST. However one payload (EMCS) is located in a NASA rack in Columbus. Thus, NASA is responsible for operations using the rack and associated crew activities, while ESA has the overall responsibility for Columbus. In addition, the Gravi2 experiment is a European experiment and also uses another payload (Biolab) located in Columbus. Thus, ESA is responsible for the crew activities performed outside the EMCS and inside Biolab. NASA is responsible for activities inside EMCS. N‐USOC had the overall responsibility for the Gravi2 operations, including science, operations planning and science hardware facility. The MUSC team located in Germany supported Gravi2 activities as responsible for monitoring and control of the Biolab facility. In order to clarify roles and responsibilities and avoid misunderstanding, a chart describing the responsibility sharing between the teams was distributed to all involved centres before the simulation session. However, coordination requirements are primarily driven by events and may in real situations become more complex and unstructured. Simulating the total activity on‐board ISS. In addition to Gravi2 control centres, several other centres participated in the total JMSTs. They simulated other simultaneous activity and experiments on‐board ISS. Even though they were not directly involved in the Gravi2 experiment, their activity might interfere with Gravi2, e.g. by contributing to loss of power, or by occupying the crew with other tasks for a longer period than originally planned. Debrief after simulations Knowledge that has been applied might be coded after application e.g. incorporated into an organisational routine. Just after each simulation, a debriefing with all the participants was held by the NASA simulation director. The participants got feedback about their performance and the major issues were discussed. In addition, The N‐USOC Training Manager performed an internal debrief the day after each simulation. The focus here was on the N‐USOC performance, challenges and improvements.
2.4 Knowledge application Activities and experiments on‐board ISS are supported by a network of physically distributed control centres, operators and engineering expertise on ground. For each mission flight rules are developed (NASA, 2010).
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During real operations of the Gravi2 experiment N‐USOC personnel was on console to monitor and control the payloads and associated crew operations 24/7. As mentioned earlier, N‐USOC had the overall responsibility for the Gravi2 operations. This includes following procedures and standards. ESA directives The European Space Policy set out a basic vision and strategy for the space sector, and tackles issues such as security and defence, access to space and exploration. The failure tolerance approach is based on the principles of no single failure and that the system shall be human error tolerant; “No single system failure or single operator error shall have critical or catastrophic consequences” and “Failure tolerance shall be the basic safety requirements used to control hazards”. The flight rules clearly state the priorities for ISS operations in the following order (Coelho et al, 2013):
Crew safety
Vehicle safety
Protection of vehicle or equipment lifetime
Continue the planned operations
Tests and training Experiment Sequence Tests (ESTs) complement participation in JMSTs. EST is defined as a dry‐run of the experiment as close as possible to the execution of the experiment in flight. The main purpose of this integrated test is to verify and validate that the hardware, integration flight procedures and data base are ready for real time operations (Coelho et al, 2013). The ESTs are also used as a training arena for control room operators, providing the opportunity to get familiar with the scientific requirements for each experiment as well as the specific procedures. On‐the‐job training (OJT) is possible both during real‐time operations and testing on ground models. OJT may be active or passive. During an active OJT an operator perform all tasks on a whole shift under surveillance of an on‐duty console operator. In a passive OJT, the person mainly observes the on‐duty operator. Tasks may include timeline reviews, writing log, and communication on the loop.
3. Discussion
3.1 Can training ensure safe and successful operations? The safety and dependability standards classify consequences of failures in space flight activities. Related questions are how and what to train different target groups, whether the quality is high enough and/or if training practice should be improved. Knowledge basis ‐ Lessons learned and "What‐if" scenarios The failure tolerance is that “no single system failure and operator error” shall have critical consequences. The Gravi2 experiment does have the potential for causing a critical consequence, due to using toxic fluid. Spillage may be damaging to the crew on‐board ISS. In order to handle this, training is seen as essential. Aspects required by ESA to be covered in all safety training are (1) General awareness briefings, (2) Basic technical training and (3) Product specific training. One interesting aspect about human space flight is that a lot of the activities are "new". Experiments on‐board ISS are accomplished only one time. Thus, in addition to safety, a failure implies large financial consequences. Knowledge application in real‐time is dependent on solid procedures and operator knowledge. In addition to solid knowledge of prior experiences, experiments on‐board ISS also include future scenarios of normal and possible anomalous procedures. "What‐if" simulations
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Tentative future actions may be subject to learning through e.g. simulation. In a simulated environment the trainees will spend time learning valuable lessons in a "safe" virtual environment yet living a lifelike experience (Coelho et al, 2013). Console personnel will get the opportunity to practice situational awareness and recovering from an anomaly or unexpected event. In addition to the payload they are responsible for, the trainees also have to consider how an eventual deviation from a normal procedure interact with other simultaneous activities on‐board the ISS. And vice versa, other payloads or systems on‐board may experience problems that have an impact on their planned activities. Individual, team and collective training Knowledge management consists of a dynamic and continuous set of processes and practices embedded in individuals, as well as groups and physical structures (Alavi & Leidner, 2001). “Best practice” may be created and shared between individually and in groups. For N‐USOC, operator training involves three target groups; new employees, repetition for experienced personnel and operators of specific experiments. Certification shall ensure basics qualifications in order to operate the control room. Danielsen & Stene (2013) argue that simulations are an important and crucial part of the certification. Although certification of a console operator is individual, the process includes cooperation and team training. This is particularly true in the final steps using simulators and on‐the‐job training. Preservation of performance. Proficiency is defined as maintaining the knowledge and skills required to continue to perform console functions correctly and efficiently. Proficiency is maintained through individual reading of manuals and documents, refresher simulator training, repetitively practicing console tasks and on‐ the‐job training. The certified N‐USOC console operators participate to periodic simulations with the ESA/NASA teams. These simulations both act as refresher for the operator, but can also be a dry‐run of a planned activity. Experiment specific training is held as preparation before an upcoming experiment or activity. Dedicated training for all console operators is performed, including simulations and classroom presentations. The topics for this training are overview of the operations flow/concept, the science involved, ground commanding, crew operations, lessons learned from earlier experiments, simulator training experiences, and the “what‐if” scenarios. It is mandatory to include anomalies, deviations and new requirements.
3.2 How to ensure organisational learning? Organisational performance often depends more on an ability to turn knowledge into effective action and less on the knowledge itself (Alavi & Leidner, 2001). Can we learn from other high risk industries? More focus on team training could be beneficial for performing ISS experiments like Gravi2. Teamwork, communication, multitasking and stress handling are all important skills for performing well as a console operator (Ekambaram et al, 2013). Today the main emphasis is on the knowledge creation of the individual person. More focus in training could be on knowledge transfer in the team and between teams. Due to the increased complexity and collaboration across different organisations and countries, there is a need for creation of social knowledge. Team collaboration across borders and between different competencies seems important to improve safety in distributed teams. Perspectives on training from other domains may give valuable inputs and perspectives. Especially this may be the case for experience from related activities such as aviation, nuclear or other high risk activities. Crew Resource Management (CRM) training originated from NASA in 1979 and includes systems where human error can have substantial effects. NASA found that the primary cause of most aviation accidents was human error. Applications of the results from this CRM research are numerous. Those who design and administer training can benefit from these findings in order to improve the effectiveness of their team training interventions.
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In general, there is a large literature on teamwork and CRM training including a specification of what and how to train. The concept CRM is related to team collaboration and focuses on interpersonal communication, leadership, and decision making in the cockpit. CRM is developed in the aviation industry. A theoretical foundation of CRM is the teamwork model from Salas, Sims and Burke (2005), called “the big five of teamwork”. The “big‐five” teamwork model is based on a literature review of 20 years of team research, and can be a useful practical perspective when exploring team collaboration. The model consists of core components and necessary coordinating mechanisms. The coordinating mechanisms are important issues to ensure safety in critical operations. The coordinating mechanisms facilitate the core components of teamwork. The core components and coordinating mechanisms are described in Table 2.
Table 2: “The big five of teamwork” (Salas, Sims & Burke, 2005)
The five core components of teamwork Team leadership Team leadership has been described as social problem solving – through
coordinating team performance to define and reach goals. Adaptability The ability to adjust team performance and tasks based on cues from the
environment, in order to attain functional team outcomes. Mutual performance monitoring Ability to collaborate with the other team members to ensure procedures
is followed and expected results are achieved. Backup behaviour Ability to plan and reschedule resources and tasks between team members
in order to avoid high workloads for individual members of the team. Team orientation Focusing on the whole team and establishing common goals instead of
individual goals. Coordinating Mechanisms
Shared mental models The common understanding or organized knowledge being shared and distributed among the team members.
Closed loop communication Exchange of information between sender and receiver, ensuring that the information is perceived and understood.
Mutual trust The perception that individuals in the team are prioritizing actions important to the other team members, and that everybody will recognize
and protect the interests of their team partners.
CRM training is covering the following six key areas as described by HSE (2003):
Situation Awareness (Operation status awareness, Environmental awareness, Anticipation, Concentration/avoiding distraction, Shared mental models)
Decision Making (Problem definition/diagnosis, Risk and time assessment, Recognition, Option generation/choice, Outcome review)
Communication (Assertiveness/speaking up, Asking questions, Listening, Giving appropriate feedback, Attending to non‐verbal signals)
Team Working (Maintaining team focus, Considering others, Supporting others, Team decision making, Conflict solving)
Personal Resources (Identifying and managing stress, Reducing/coping with fatigue, Physical and mental fitness)
Supervision/ Leadership (Use of authority/assertiveness, Maintaining standards, Planning and co‐ ordination, Workload management)
Salas et al (2007) argue that team training interventions are a viable approach organizations can take in order to enhance team outcomes. They are useful for improving cognitive outcomes, affective outcomes, teamwork processes, and performance outcomes. Moreover, results suggest that training content, team membership stability, and team size moderate the effectiveness of team training interventions. The Gravi2 preparation and training included joint simulations and team work training. Each session was followed by debrief on the loop between participating control centres. Further, a separate N‐USOC internal debrief was arrange the following day. These debriefs was used to give feedback and reflect on the performance. Debriefs may be improved by using the CRM concept to ensure that the important teamwork components were reflected on. This includes both to give feedback on teamwork between all control centres,
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within the Gravi2 team (Facility Responsible Centres in Norway and Germany) and between the two N‐USOC operators.
3.3 Technology as an artefact in knowledge management processes The performance of real‐time operations of experiments on‐board ISS use advanced technology in both integration and operation phases. This is the case for both remote controls of the greenhouse and cooperation between operators. Distributed cooperation and communication become more and more normal in several industries. Advanced technology is used in the complex collaboration across different organisations and countries. Technological artefacts may support organisational knowledge management processes. IT may support all four forms of knowledge transfer (Alavi & Leidner, 2001); between individuals, from individuals to groups, between groups and across groups. The authors argue that video technologies like video conferencing may also enhance transfer. Information technologies allow for organisational knowledge to be applied across the time and space. In ISS experiments IT is used to support communication and cooperation. Instead of using video conferenced to support the contact between control centres, they are using tele and voice communication. However, the ground centres have real time video of crew activities. In addition all have the same display of time schedule including related documents and procedures.
4. Conclusion Human space flight includes several high risk activities. ESA standards states that no single failure shall have critical consequences. The Gravi2 experiment planned on‐board ISS in April 2014 has a potential critical consequence, in case of a toxic leakage injuring the crew. In order to prevent this, competent control room operators are of major importance. In addition, safe technical equipment and adequate procedures are required. Training is emphasized in order to ensure competent console personnel. Both individual and team training is used to ensure organisational learning. The individual training leads to certified console personnel. When preparing for an experiment, team training in the form of simulations are crucial. The Gravi2 experiment was the first experiment under the responsibility of N‐USOC that had the potential for “Severity Level 2” (Critical). Gravi2 also implied a more complex operational environment than previous experiments, with several control centres involved in the real time operations and preparation for this. The simulations performed as preparation for Gravi2 enhanced organizational learning in the distributed operational teams. The experiences from the simulations was discussed and reflected on during debriefs both with the distributed team and internally in the N‐USOC team. Lessons learned normally lead to changed procedures or operational concepts. In addition, simulations will reveal if roles and responsibilities that are agreed up front function in the real environment. CRM training is widely used in other sectors sector such as aviation or petroleum industry. It is believed that CRM training can improve knowledge creation and team performance in control rooms.
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