Article Critique

18 Volume 78 • Number 8

A D V A N C E M E N T O F T H E SCIENCEA D V A N C E M E N T O F T H E SCIENCE

 I N T E R N A T I O N A L P E R S P E C T I V E S / S P E C I A L R E P O R T

Introduction

Hazardous Substances in E-Waste The composition of e-waste is incredibly miscellaneous. E-waste contains complex mixtures of potential environmental con- taminants that are distinct from other forms of waste (Robinson, 2009). It contains more than 1,000 different substances that fall under “hazardous” and “nonhazardous” cat- egories (Ministry of Environment and For- ests, 2008). Due to the presence of a large number of hazardous substances including heavy metals (e.g., mercury, cadmium, lead, etc.), flame retardants (e.g., pentabromo- phenol, polybrominated diphenyl ethers [PBDEs], tetrabromobisphenol-A, etc.), and other substances, e-waste is generally con- sidered hazardous, and if improperly man- aged, may pose significant environmental and health risks (Tsydenova & Bengtsson, 2011). Some potential contaminants in e-waste are so uncommon that little research has been conducted on their disposal conse-

quences. Further, chemical composition of e-waste varies depending on the age and type of the discarded item as some new chemicals are introduced into electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) from time to time while other chemicals are restricted. For instance, e-waste composition is changing with tech- nological development and pressure on manufacturers from regulators and nongov- ernmental organizations (NGOs) (Robin- son, 2009). The replacement of cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors with liquid crystal dis- plays (LCD) is a constructive advancement in this context as it reduces the concentra- tion of lead in e-waste. LCD displays, how- ever, contain the heavy metal mercury.

Furthermore, e-waste contains certain pre- cious metals such as gold, silver, and copper. This provides incentives for recycling and makes e-waste economically significant. For instance, precious metal concentrations in printed circuit boards are more than tenfold higher than commercially mined minerals (Robinson, 2009). Platinum group metals are

included in EEEs due to their high chemical stability and conductance of electricity (Rob- inson, 2009). Thus, a hidden treasure lies beneath the ever-growing mountain of e-waste. Some 820,000 tons of copper are included in the annual flow of e-waste (Robinson, 2009).

Health Hazards Related to E-Waste Treatment E-waste treatment including simple recycling, burning, chemical digestion, and disposal practices exposes the workers and area resi- dents to high levels of toxicity through mech- anisms such as inhalation, contact with soil and dust, dermal exposure, and oral intake of contaminated locally produced food and drinking water. Unregulated recycling activi- ties generate workplace and environmental contamination by a wide range of chemi- cals. Methods used for recycling of e-waste release toxic metals (such as lead) as well as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) into the environment (Wong et al., 2007). Inhalation and dust ingestion are suggested as particu- larly important routes of human exposure. An assessment of risk from dust ingestion conducted by Leung and co-authors (2008) revealed that ingestion of lead- and copper- contaminated dust may pose serious health risks to workers and local residents. For instance, for a printed circuit board recycling worker, the estimated oral average daily dose of lead exceeded the ‘‘safe” oral reference dose for lead by 50 times. Available evidence demonstrates that e-waste-related mixtures (EWMs) contain both chemicals present in EEE components and chemicals released dur- ing e-waste combustion (Frazzoli, Orisakwe, Dragone, & Mantovani, 2010). EWMs can enter living organisms, from food-producing

A b s t r a c t Technological waste in the form of electronic waste (e-waste) is a threat to all countries. E-waste impacts health and the

environment by entering the food chain in the form of chemical toxicants

and exposing the population to deleterious chemicals, mainly in the form

of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and persistent organic pollutants.

This special report tries to trace the environmental and health implications

of e-waste in India. The author concludes that detrimental health and

environmental consequences are associated with e-waste and the challenge

lies in producing affordable electronics with minimum chemical toxicants.

Anwesha Borthakur Centre for Studies in Science Policy

Jawaharlal Nehru University

Health and Environmental Hazards of Electronic Waste in India

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animals to humans, through the gastrointes- tinal tract as well as lungs and skin (Frazzoli et al., 2010). Toxicants in EWMs are gener- ally POPs. POPs are the substances that are resistant to biodegradation, have a strong tendency to bioaccumulate in the food chain, and are prone to long-range transport. It has been reported that POPs have the potential to transfer from one generation to another through breastfeeding (Frazzoli et al., 2010). Hence, it is a pollutant not only of significant concern for the current generation but also for their offspring.

Effects on Food Crops Fu and co-authors (2008) carried out a study in Taizhou in southeast China, which is the biggest e-waste recycling area in Zhe- jiang Province. Taizhou is also an important

agricultural area in Zhejiang Province, and rice serves as the major crop for the local people. The authors investigated the heavy metal contents in rice samples from a typi- cal e-waste recycling area. Ten heavy met- als including copper, cadmium, and lead were found in 13 polished rice and relevant hull samples. Six paddy soil samples were also investigated. The results showed that the agricultural soil in Taizhou was most severely contaminated by cadmium, fol- lowed by copper and mercury. Moreover, the concentration of heavy metals such as lead and cadmium in rice near e-waste recy- cling sites was higher than those from other areas. The authors hypothesized the prob- ability of lead intake by the local inhabitants being higher than the limit prescribed by the World Health Organization.

Effects on Child Health Liu and co-authors (2011) carried out a study aimed at evaluating the dose-depen- dent effects of lead exposure on tempera- ment alterations in children from a primi- tive e-waste recycling area in Guiyu, China, and a control area Chendian, China. It is widely known that environmental expo- sure to pollutants results in accumulation of lead and other toxic substances in chil- dren. The results showed higher blood lead levels (BLLs) in Guiyu children. Primitive e-waste recycling may threaten the health of children by increasing BLLs and altering children’s temperaments. This is because lead exposure produces a wide spectrum of health outcomes, most notably neurocogni- tive and behavioral deficits in response to pre- or postnatal exposures (Liu et al., 2011). Child exposure to lead has been related to irreversible decreases in intelligence. The authors suggested that it is necessary to make policy changes to restrict e-waste recycling to certain areas so that children’s exposure to chemical toxicants can be limited.

Contamination of Food Chains by the Toxicants From E-Waste EWMs may accumulate in agricultural lands and be available for uptake by grazing live- stock. Persistent bioaccumulating pollut- ants are of top concern from the standpoint of food chain contamination (Frazzoli et al., 2010). In general, chemicals from EWMs have slow metabolic rates in animals and may bioaccumulate in tissues and be avail- able in edible products, such as eggs and milk (Frazzoli et al., 2010). For instance, PBDEs are lipophilic, resulting in bioaccu- mulation in organisms and biomagnification in food chains (Robinson, 2009). Studies reported e-waste contaminants in breast milk. The reporting of e-waste toxicants in milk is a major concern as dairy animals have productive lives much longer than meat- producing animals. Hence, a greater chance exists for bioaccumulation. It is noteworthy, however, that bioaccumulation occurs also in the adipose tissue, liver, and fatty portion of meat (Robinson, 2009). Bioavailability and bioaccumulation factors in aquatic spe- cies for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and PBDEs from e-waste sites were shown by Wu and co-authors (2008). Frazzoli and co-authors (2010) highlight the impacts of

Effects of E-Waste Components on Health

Source of E-Wastes Constituent Health Effects

Solder in printed circuit boards, glass panels, and gaskets in computer monitors

Lead • Damage to central and peripheral nervous systems, blood systems, and kidney damage.

• Affects brain development of children. Chip resistors and semiconductors

Cadmium • Toxic irreversible effects on human health. • Accumulates in kidney and liver. • Causes neural damage. • Teratoenic.

Relays and switches, printed circuit boards

Mercury • Chronic damage to the brain. • Respiratory and skin disorders due to

bioaccumulation in fish. Corrosion protection of untreated and galvanized steel plates, decorator or hardner for steel housings

Hexavalent chromium • Asthmatic bronchitis. • DNA damage.

Cabling and computer housing

Plastics including polyvinyl chloride

Burning produces dioxin. It causes • reproductive and developmental problems, • immune system damage, and • interference with regulatory hormones.

Plastic housing of electronic equipments and circuit boards.

Brominated flame retardants

• Disrupts endocrine system functions.

Front panel of cathode ray tubes

Barium Short-term exposure causes • muscle weakness, and • damage to heart, liver, and spleen.

Motherboard Beryllium • Carcinogenic (lung cancer). • Inhalation of fumes and dust causes chronic

beryllium disease or beryllicosis. • Skin diseases such as warts.

Source: Ramachandra & Varghese, 2004.

TABLE 1

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improper disposal of e-waste on the overall environment. It not only creates pollution, but also adversely affects the food chain, and thus health. Effects of e-waste components on health are listed in Table 1.

Hazards and Risks Associated With E-Waste Treatment in India Recycling of e-waste is a very lucrative busi- ness in India and dominated by informal actors (Manomaivibool, 2009). E-waste in

India is often processed to recover valuable materials in small workshops using rudi- mentary recycling methods (Tsydenova & Bengtsson, 2011). For instance, during the manual dismantling process in informal

Laws and Regulations in India Relating to E-Waste

Law or Regulation Major Content Status/Date

Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (amendment 1991)

An umbrella legislation that empowers the central government to take measures to protect and improve environmental quality and control and reduce pollution from all sources.

Effective from November 19, 1986

Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2008 (amendments July 2009, September 2009)

Provides stipulations on the management, disposal, and transboundary movement of solid waste of a hazardous nature (encompassing provisions of the Basel Convention) as mentioned in schedules I, II, III, and IV of the rule.

Effective from September 24, 2008

Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000

Provides compliance criteria to municipalities for the collection, segregation, storage, transportation, processing, and disposal of municipal solid wastes.

Effective from September 25, 2000

Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001

Confers responsibility for the safe disposal and recycling of used lead acid batteries on the manufactures/assemblers/importers.

Effective from May 16, 2001

The Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Amendment Rules, 2003

Under schedule 3 of this rule, e-waste is defined as “waste electrical and electronic equipment [EEE] including all components, subassemblies, and their fractions except batteries falling under these rules.” The definition provided here is similar to that of Basel Convention. E-waste is only briefly included in the rules with no detailed description.

Notified on May 20, 2003

The E-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011

A recent initiative meant exclusively to address e-waste. Here, “EEE” means equipment that is dependent on electric currents or electromagnetic fields to be fully functional and “e-waste” means waste EEE, whole or in part or rejects from their manufacturing and repair process, which are intended to be discarded. These rules are meant to be applied to every producer, consumer, or bulk consumer involved in manufacturing, sale purchase, and processing of EEE, collection centers, dismantlers, and recyclers of e-waste. Emphasises on extended producer responsibility.

Effective from May 1, 2012

The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 (amendment 1992)

Covers accidents involving hazardous substances and insurance coverage for these. Effective from January 23, 1991

National Environmental Tribunal Act, 1995 Provide for strict liability for damage arising out of accidents caused from the handling of hazardous substances. (The tribunal shall become defunct and the act shall stand repealed upon the enactment of the National Green Tribunal Bill 2009 currently pending in parliament.)

Effective from June 17, 1995

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (amendment 1988)

Provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and for maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water in the country.

Effective from March 23, 1974

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 (amendment 2003)

Provide for the levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by persons operating and carrying on certain types of industrial activities. This cess is collected with a view to augment the resources of the central board and the state boards for the prevention and control of water pollution constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.

Effective from December 7, 1977

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (amendment 1987)

Provide for the prevention, control, and abatement of air pollution in India. Effective from March 29, 1981

Source: Adopted from Wath, Vaidya, Dutt, & Chakrabarti, 2010.

TABLE 2

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dismantling and recycling sites, e-waste recyclers use chisels, hammers, and cutting torches to open solder connections and sepa- rate various types of metals and components (Duan et al., 2011). Wong and co-authors (2007) listed some of the common crude recycling techniques related to e-waste in developing countries such as India. These are 1) stripping of metals in open-pit acid baths to recover valuable metals as silver, gold, copper, and platinum; 2) removing electronic components from printed circuit boards by heating over a grill using honeycombed coal blocks (coal mixed with river sediment that is contaminated) as fuel; 3) chipping and melting plastics without proper ventilation; 4) burning cables for recovering metals, and also burning unwanted materials in open air; 5) disposing unsalvageable materials in the fields and riverbanks; 6) toner sweeping; and 7) dismantling electronic equipment. Ha and co-authors (2009) attempted to evaluate the contamination by trace elements at e-waste recycling sites in Bangalore and Chennai, India, and accordingly measured trace ele- ments (TEs) in soil, air dust, and human hair collected from e-waste recycling sites and the reference sites in both places. The results suggest that e-waste recycling and its disposal may lead to environmental and human health contamination by some TEs. As observed by Brigden and co-authors (2005), high levels of cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc were char- acteristic of ash collected from two waste burning operations in New Delhi, India, at Ibrahimpur and Shashtri Park.

Hazards and Risks Associated With Manual Disassembling of CRTs Discarded computer monitors and televi- sion sets are identified as hazardous materi- als due to the high content of lead in their CRTs. CRTs are broken to remove cop- per yokes that are further used for copper recovery through the manual disassembly process. Environmental pollution is a likely outcome of the breaking and further han- dling of CRTs. In India, CRTs were report- edly smelted for recovery of glass, but prior to the treatment they were stored in an open area (Brigden et al., 2005). The open air storage and dumping of CRTs raise concerns about the possibility of lead contained in the CRT glass leaching out into the environment (Tsydenova & Bengtsson, 2011).

Hazards and Risks Associated With Manual Disassembling of Printed Circuit Board Assemblies (PCBAs) PCBAs are one of the fastest growing sources of waste in many developing countries and spotlight the need to recycle, recover, and reuse materials that have been consigned to informal dismantling sites (Duan et al., 2011). The techniques used for PCBA dismantling in India mainly involves primitive open-solder- ing methods. In countries like China and India, immature technologies are the main obstacle to the recycling of waste PCBAs. Duan and co-authors (2011) noted that PCBAs, which are more complicated and difficult to process, are simply cooked on a coal-heated plate and melted (on the iron plate or flat wok) in order to resell the chips and other recovered compo- nents to acid strippers for further processing. The study shows that the dismantled PCBAs have a significant environmental impact because they contain heavy metals and halo- gen-containing flame retardants, such as lead (soldering tin), mercury (switches, round cell batteries), cadmium (pins), brominates, and mixed plastics that can seep into the environ- ment if not properly managed. Further, cell batteries may ignite or leak potentially hazard- ous organic vapors if exposed to excessive heat or fire and explosion may result if a capacitor is subjected to high currents and heating.

Hazards and Risks Associated With Recovery of Metals The most common practice used for the recov- ery of metals from e-waste in India includes dis- solving of the metals in strong acid solutions. Mixtures of concentrated nitric acid and hydro- chloric acids were reportedly used in Delhi for the extraction of gold and copper, respec- tively (Tsydenova & Bengtsson, 2011). Aside from the obvious health and safety concerns that arise from the handling of concentrated acid solutions in these workshops, indications from workers that the contaminated spent acid wastes are simply disposed of in land also raises substantial environmental concerns (Brigden et al., 2005). Further, various volatile compounds of nitrogen and chlorine are known to be emit- ted during such processes.

Hazards and Risks Associated With Processing of Plastics Plastics are manually removed from e-waste and mechanically shredded (Tsydenova

& Bengtsson, 2011). The next treatment step may be some kind of separation (e.g., by color or density) or further grinding. E-waste parts are burned on open fires to recover metals from plastics in which they are encased; this includes plastic coated wires as well as other complex components (Tsydenova & Bengtsson, 2011).

Major Environmental Pollutions From E-Waste Disposal of e-waste in an environmentally acceptable manner is a major challenge. Most e-waste today is landfilled, which is not a sustainable practice. Although recy- cling may remove some contaminants, large amounts may still end up concentrated in landfills, adversely affecting human health or the environment. An article by Sepùlveda and co-authors (2010) assessed the mag- nitude of environmental contamination at e-waste recycling sites in China and India by comparing the data with known concen- tration thresholds and other pollution level standards. The review highlighted very high levels of lead, PBDEs, etc., in air, bottom ash, dust, soil, water, and sediments in e-waste recycling areas of the two countries suggest- ing a serious threat to the environment and human health.

Air Pollution Dust is a major air pollutant produced in e-waste treatment sites during dismantling. Many e-waste contaminants are spread into the air via dust (Robinson, 2009). This is a major exposure pathway for humans through ingestion, inhalation, and skin absorption. Brigden and co-authors (2005) screened dust samples from the e-waste recycling workshops involved in desol- dering and PCBA disassembly in China and India, which showed exceptionally high concentrations of lead and tin. Incineration, carried out as a disposal measure of e-waste (especially the open-air burning of plastics in order to recover copper and other met- als), has the potential to emit toxic fumes and gases into the environment, thereby polluting the surrounding air. Moreover, obsolete refrigerators, freezers, and air con- ditioning units contain ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons, a potential air pollut- ant. Thus, both e-waste recycling and dis- posal areas are potential air pollution sites.

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Water Pollution Both ground and surface water pollution are major concerns near to the e-waste recycling sites. E-waste contaminants can enter aquatic systems via leaching from dumpsites where processed or unprocessed e-waste may have been deposited. Similarly, the disposal of acid following hydrometallurgical processes into waters or onto soils, as well as the dissolution or settling of airborne contaminants, can also result in the contamination of aquatic systems (Robinson, 2009). Several studies indicated that Guiyu, China, a thriving area of illegal e-waste recycling, is facing acute water shortages due to the contamination of water resources. The whole ecosystem in Guiyu has been affected by the intensive recycling activities, especially acid leaching operations taking place along the rivers (Tsydenova & Bengtsson, 2011). Now water is being transported from far away towns to cater to the demands of the local population (Ramachandra & Varghese, 2004).

Soil Pollution Soil pollution is a major apprehension in e-waste landfill sites. Soil acidification is a common occurrence. Mercury leaches when certain electronic devices are destroyed. The same is true for PCBs from condensers (Ramachandra & Varghese, 2004). Ha and co-authors (2009) reported that soils at an e-waste recycling slum in Bangalore had con- centrations of chemical toxicants some one hundredfold higher than those found at a nearby control site in the same city.

Legislation in India Related to E-Waste In India, policy level initiatives, both in the form of regulatory regimes and market-based policy initiatives related to e-waste, are still inadequate. For instance, the IT revolu- tion started in India back in the early 1990s, whereas a proper policy related to e-waste was introduced almost 20 years later, in 2011, in the form of the “E-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011.” Although market- based policies have great potential to initiate proper disposal behavior of e-waste, such poli- cies are not accurately implemented in India. For instance, some manufacturing giants claim that they practice extended producer responsibilities and carry out take-back ser- vices (a form of market-based policy initiative) in India. A study carried out by Greenpeace

(2008), however, reveals that global giants such as Apple, Microsoft, Panasonic, Philips, Sharp, Sony, Sony Ericsson, and Toshiba have no take-back services in India. It is notewor- thy that these are the companies with particu- larly high market share of EEEs in the coun- try. Some of them have take-back programs in countries like the U.S., but they don’t offer such services in India. These companies indi- rectly foster the growth of the informal recy- cling by failing to provide easy and free take- back services to ensure responsible recycling (Greenpeace, 2008). Table 2 lists the laws and regulations in India relating to e-waste.

The Challenge of Producing EEEs With Minimum Toxicants When the e-waste problem started gaining attention, several studies were carried out to evaluate the hazards from improper treat- ment and disposal facilities. A number of studies have been conducted in the informal recycling sites of the developing countries, such as in Guiyu and Taizhou, China, and Delhi and Bangalore, India. All these studies mark the presence of some potentially harm- ful chemicals in the e-waste stream. Several NGOs have been active in putting pressure on the producers of EEEs to reduce or elimi- nate the toxic environmental contaminants in their products. Many producers of EEEs have responded well and are investigating innovative ways to enhance safe disposal and recycling. The European Union’s “Restric- tion on Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS)” enacted in 2003 is a momentous policy level initiative to restrict the use of six hazardous components (lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, polybro- minated biphenyls, and PBDEs) in EEEs. The RoHS directive created a new global standard on hazardous substances in electronics. Fur- ther, radio frequency identification tags could provide information about the condition and composition of electronic products, which can alert waste recyclers about valuable com- ponents and potential environmental con- taminants contained within the end-of-life product (Robinson, 2009).

Conclusion This special report discussed the detrimen- tal environmental and human health con- sequences of e-waste. The workers in the e-waste recycling units and local residents

are exposed to the perilous chemicals pres- ent in e-waste mostly through inhalation, dust ingestion, dermal exposure, and dietary intake. The substances present in e-waste have the capacity to bioaccumulate and bio- magnify along the food chain. The chemicals present in e-waste are POPs having long- term effects both on human health and the environment. Heavy metal concentration in e-waste is of great concern. Health effects of heavy metals such as mercury and lead were observed among workers working in rudi- mentary recycling workshops. Air, water, and soil pollution caused by e-waste recycling/ disposal are of major concern. Efforts should be made to educate e-waste recycling person- nel to adopt health and safety measures, for instance, to wear personal protective equip- ment, to clean up the environment/surround- ings after recycling is performed, and so on. The government should conduct health screenings from time to time to see if the peo- ple performing recycling activities have any of the health effects described and educate them on how to avoid such health effects. Further, it is essential to put regulations in place and enforce them to curtail open burn- ing, illicit dumping of e-waste, and to restrict the areas where recycling can take place in order to control its environmental and health consequences.

At present the challenges in front of the global community lie in producing affordable EEEs with minimum chemical toxicants. A number of EEE manufactures have taken ini- tiatives to invent “green” EEEs. A major con- cern related to green electronics is their high cost. For instance, although “Energy Star” products are green and eco-friendly, they are not affordable to most of the consumers in countries like India. Further, India needs a grassroots level education and awareness agenda in order to sensitize people towards issues involving e-waste. It is essential to educate various stakeholders involved in the e-waste flow about how to handle e-waste, the ramifications of not handling it correctly, and the impact of those living close to dis- posal and recycling sites or even downwind of it.

Corresponding Author: Anwesha Borthakur, Centre for Studies in Science Policy, Jawaha- rlal Nehru University, New Delhi-110067, India. E-mail: [email protected].

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Brigden, K., Labunska, I., Santillo, D., & Allsopp, M. (2005). Recy- cling of electronic wastes in China and India: Workplace and environ- mental contamination. Retrieved from http://www.greenpeace.org/ international/PageFiles/25134/recycling-of-electronic-waste.pdf

Duan, H., Hou, K., Li, J., & Zhu, X. (2011). Examining the technol- ogy acceptance for dismantling of waste printed circuit boards in light of recycling and environmental concerns. Journal of Environ- mental Management, 92(3), 392–399.

Frazzoli, C., Orisakwe, O.E., Dragone, R., & Mantovani, A. (2010). Diagnostic health risk assessment of electronic waste on the gen- eral population in developing countries’ scenarios. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 30, 388–399.

Fu, J.J., Zhou, Q.F., Liu, J.M., Liu, W., Wang, T., Zhang, Q.H., & Jiang, G.B. (2008). High levels of heavy metals in rice (Oryza sativa L.) from a typical e-waste recycling area in southeast China and its potential risk to human health. Chemosphere, 71(7), 1269–1275.

Greenpeace. (2008). Take back blues: An assessment of e-waste take back in India. Retrieved from www.greenpeace.org/india/press/ reports/take-back-blues

Ha, N.N., Agusa, T., Ramu, K., Tu, N.P., Murata, S., Bulbule, K.A., Parthasaraty, P., Takahashi, S., Subramanian, A., & Tanabe, S. (2009). Contamination by trace elements at e-waste recycling sites in Bangalore, India. Chemosphere, 76(1), 9–15.

Leung, A.O., Duzgoren-Aydin, N.S., Cheung, K.C., & Wong, M.H. (2008). Heavy metals concentrations of surface dust from e-waste recycling and its human health implications in southeast China. Environmental Science & Technology, 42(7), 2674–2680.

Liu, J., Xu, X., Wu, K., Piao, Z., Huang, J., Guo, Y., Li, W., Zhang, Y., Chen, A., & Huo, X. (2011). Association between lead exposure from electronic waste recycling and child temperament altera- tions. Neurotoxicology, 32(4), 458–464.

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Ramachandra, T.V., & Varghese, S.K. (2004). Environmentally sound options for e-wastes management. Envis Journal of Human Settlements, 3, 1–10.

Robinson, B.H. (2009). E-waste: An assessment of global produc- tion and environmental impacts. Science of the Total Environment, 408(2), 183–191.

Sepúlveda, A., Schluep, M., Renaud, F.G., Streicher, M., Kuehr, R., Hagelüken, C., & Gerecke, A.C. (2010). A review of the envi- ronmental fate and effects of hazardous substances released from electrical and electronic equipments during recycling: Examples from China and India. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 30(1), 28–41.

Tsydenova, O., & Bengtsson, M. (2011). Chemical hazards associ- ated with treatment of waste electrical and electronic equipment. Waste Management, 31(1), 45–58.

Wath, S., Vaidya, A.N., Dutt, P.S., & Chakrabarti, T. (2010). A road- map for development of sustainable e-waste management system in India. Science of the Total Environment, 409(1), 19–32.

Wo ng, M.H., Wu, S.C., Deng, W.J., Yu, X.Z., Luo, Q., Leung, A.O., Luksemburg, W.J., & Wong, A.S. (2007). Export of toxic chemi- cals—a review of the case of uncontrolled electronic-waste recy- cling. Environmental Pollution, 149(2), 131–140.

Wu , J.P., Luo, X.J., Zhang, Y., Luo, Y., Chen, S.J., Mai, B.X., & Yang, Z.Y. (2008). Bioaccumulation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in wild aquatic species from an electronic waste (e-waste) recycling site in South China. Environment International, 34(8), 1109–1113.

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