SOC220 - Exam #2

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Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Racial and Ethnic Relations

NINTH EDITION

Chapter

Arab Americans

and Other

Middle Eastern Americans

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Big Picture Questions

What role have Arab Americans played in building up this country’s wealth and institutions?
What effect has the ideology of Orientalism had on U.S. society?
How have Arab Americans challenged U.S. religious and racial stereotypes?

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

MIDDLE EASTERN AMERICANS

People in the U.S. are confused about 3 categories that overlap
Middle Eastern Americans
Arab Americans, and
Muslim Americans

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Distinctions

Middle Eastern Americans
An umbrella term for Americans whose ancestry is in any of the Middle Eastern countries
May be non-Arab and/or non-Muslim
Umbrella group more important since 9/11
Arab Americans
People from numerous Arab countries
This is just one group within the category of Middle Eastern Americans, and some are not Muslim
Muslim Americans
Encompasses many people who are not Middle Eastern
Includes many African Americans, South Asian Americans, and whites

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

ARAB AMERICANS

European civilization heavily influenced by advanced Arab cultures in the 10th-12th centuries
Widespread use of the Arabic language indicates how far Arab empire once spread
Since the 1960s Arab-Israeli conflicts, a very strong pan-Arab identity has developed in the Middle East
In the United States a strong pan-ethnic Arab American identity has also emerged, in part as a reaction to the stereotyping of Arab Americans and in part as a reaction to what is seen as an anti-Arab tilt by the U.S. government in Middle Eastern conflicts

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Population with Arab Ancestry by Detailed Group (2008)

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

MIGRATION

Today, many Arab Americans are immigrants or the children of immigrants
Sojourner Immigration
The plan of immigrants to earn money and return home
Most Arab immigrants have entered U.S. since 1967
Since 9/11, Arab immigrants, Muslim and non-Muslim, and other Muslim immigrants have faced much racial profiling by U.S. government officials
Immigration regulations have been violated or applied disproportionately
Homeland Security Act has gained control of immigrants

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Coalescence

American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee (ADC)
Has fought racial profiling and discrimination
In recent decades, immigrant groups have coalesced into an Arab American umbrella group for social and political goals
Detroit study surveyed leaders of Middle Eastern organizations to discern if there were cultural traits share across diverse groups
Most stressed the importance of extended kinship networks

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

STEREOTYPING AND PREJUDICE

In first period of Arab immigration, classified as “Turks” or “Syrians”
Between 1909 and 1944, at least eight court decisions legally constructed whether Arabs were “white,” and four ruled that by “common knowledge” or “legal precedent,” they should not be considered white
Right of Arab immigrants to citizenship and to claim whiteness continued to be challenged in many institutions
Suffered extreme stereotypes that whites drew from an entrenched white racist frame

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Recent Stereotyping and
U.S. Politics

Strong negative images of Arab Americans and Middle Eastern Americans have been circulating for decades
Since 1960s, U.S. government policies have helped spread negative stereotypes
Today, as in past, political figures in Middle East characterized in biologically racist terms
Television and movies have often circulated stereotyped images

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Challenging Stereotyping

Few U.S. leaders outside Middle Eastern American communities have been willing to challenge racialized images
African American leader Jesse Jackson
First major U.S. political leader to speak publicly of Arab Americans in strongly positive terms
Arab and other Middle Eastern American leaders have expressed concern
Frequency of negative images and infrequency of positive media commentaries

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Stereotypes and Arab American Women

Arab women frequently portrayed as exotic, passive, or totally dominated by men
Several Arab and Middle Eastern countries have had a greater percentage of women in their governing bodies than the U.S.
Women in numerous Arab countries face issues of imposed hijab or burka, though in many cases they choose covering out of respect for traditions or to be liberated from a “sex object” status

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Arab American Women, continued

“Many . . . report feeling full of dignity and self-esteem and enjoy that physical, personal self does not enter into social interactions”
Traditional values in Arab countries emphasize family honor and stipulate that women be modest and protected when around male strangers
Centrality of certain body imagery in U.S. media creates problems for Arab American women
As a result, “dark pigmentation and, especially, dark body hair, have been sources of shame to Arab American girls growing up in U.S.”

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

OPPRESSION, DISCRIMINATION, AND CONFLICT

Early Arab immigrants and their children faced racialized discrimination
Especially in southern areas where self-defined whites often classified Arabs as non-white
Although U.S. Census Bureau now defines Arab immigrants and descendents as white, most non-Arab Americans still view them as “not white”
Array of contemporary discrimination is broad

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

International Politics and Discrimination

Commonplace “Orientalist” distortions of Arab and Middle Eastern people have serious implications for U.S. government policies
In recent decades, various kinds of discrimination have been linked to international issues and to stereotypes held by many non-Arab Americans
Anti-Arab stereotyping has persisted since the 1970s at the highest levels of government
Since the 1970s, Arab American activists have been targets of harassment and violence

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Before 9/11

The 1990s Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act and the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act have given federal authorities powers to detain and interrogate immigrants suspected of links to terrorist organizations without the usual constitutional and civil rights protection
In the 1990s, the FBI and the Immigration and Naturalization Service also developed a plan to imprison Arab Americans in the event of a war between the United States and any Arab country

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Effect of the Attacks on
World Trade Center & Pentagon

9/11 attacks generated many hate crimes against Arab Americans or those who were thought to look like Arabs
2001 Patriot Act gave federal government broad authority to detain noncitizens with little or no due process and to carry out searches and surveillance with less judicial review
Many Arab and Middle Eastern Americans have been targeted by federal agents and private security because of the way they look

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Taking Action Against Discrimination

Lawsuits by Arab civil rights groups have been aimed at Homeland Security for using racial profiling
Antidiscrimination groups have protested several movies that show Arabs as terrorists and/or threats to the U.S.
Many Arab Americans have supported civil rights organizations such as the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) that have taken action against anti-Arab and anti-Muslim discrimination

using various strategies

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Local Conflict and Cooperation with Other Groups

In Detroit, Arab businesses have periodic conflicts with other racial and ethnic groups
Some black groups report being treated with disrespect or discrimination
In recent years, local Jewish and Arab American groups have made substantial efforts to increase contacts and dialogue

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

POLITICS AND POLITICAL EMERGENCE

Arab and Muslim Americans have increased their political activity
Major voter registration drives have led to a substantial increase in Arab voter participation
Consumer advocate, Ralph Nader (Lebanese American) has run for president in several recent elections
Negative images of Arab Americans, however, have interfered with their ability to participate fully in politics

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

International Politics and Linkages

Social and political ties to nations of origin remain important
Recently, Arab and Muslim Americans have been critical of U.S. foreign policy for tilting too far in support of Israel
Recent surveys show that majorities of both Arab Americans & Jewish Americans favor an independent Palestinian state and the right of Israel to be secure and independent
Arab American activists and organizations have also focused on domestic issues of immigration and health care

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

THE ECONOMY

Most early 20th century Arab immigrants bypassed new industrial occupations and instead became small merchants
Early immigrants often working-class
Recent immigrants professionals and business people
Arab Americans are more prosperous economically than some other racial and ethnic groups
Arab Americans are concentrated in a few major cities, with the largest number in the Detroit area

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Occupational Distribution (2008)

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Median Family Income and Poverty Rates (2008)

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

EDUCATION

Average Arab American better educated than average American
Some send children to private Muslim schools, but most attend public schools
Educator Wendy Schwartz: “Because prejudice against Arab Americans increases when political events involve Arabs . . . , educators need to be prepared to respond to possible harassment of Arab American students”
Educators also need to be sensitive to major cultural practices of Arab Americans

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Educational Attainment of
Those 25 Years and Older (2008)

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

RELIGION

Religion has long been central to Middle Eastern countries and cultures
Most early Arab immigrants were Christian
Since the 1960s, most immigrants have been Muslim
Islam practiced in North America since 1st century of European settlement
Some enslaved Africans were Muslims
Arrival of Arab and other Middle Eastern Muslim immigrants since 1960s has brought conflicts to some Islamic mosques and organizations

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Religiosity

Recent Pew poll:
Nearly 75% of Muslim Americans said religion was very important in their everyday lives, as compared with 60% of those Americans who indicated they were Christians
40% of the Muslims went to mosque services at least once a week, as compared to 45% of Christian Americans who attended church at least once a week

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Intolerance

Unlike various denominations of Christianity, Islam not yet fully accepted in U.S.
U.S. media periodically connect mainstream Islam to extremists and terrorism
Recurring linkage of Islam to extremist terrorism creates serious dilemmas for Muslim Americans
Religious intolerance still confronts them daily
Some have decided to deny or “de-emphasize their Arab or Islamic background”

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

ADAPTATION AND ASSIMILATION ISSUES

Partial cultural assimilation has come relatively quickly for most Arab immigrants and their children
In the sphere of structural assimilation at the secondary level of economics and politics, early Arab Americans advanced and gradually achieved substantial success
In contrast, immigrants since the 1960s have assimilated more slowly because numbers have been larger and more intense anti-Arab sentiment has existed in the U.S.

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Contemporary Assimilation Issues and Patterns

Issues receiving greatest emphasis
Immigration, cultural preservation, citizenship, and assimilation
Significant language and other cultural assimilation is taking place in Arab American communities
Although some oppose marriage outside the group because it threatens solidarity, intermarriage is increasing
Along with vertical economic progress has come horizontal mobility, especially suburbanization

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Assimilation and Generational Conflicts

Today, Arab and Middle Eastern American groups are relatively young
Many are under the age of 25
Like children of other immigrants, Arab children are caught between parents’ culture and dominant U.S. culture
Young are enticed away from traditional values and practices by negative aspects of U.S. culture
Drugs, sexual promiscuity
Some community leaders fear anti-Arab prejudice and discrimination will cause youth to abandon heritage and ancestry more rapidly

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Creating a Hybrid Culture

Ethnogenesis perspective seems to fit Arab American experience in certain ways
Constituted of more than a single Middle Eastern group
One study found that Michigan’s Arab American organizations have helped young people become assimilated to good features of U.S. culture & society while cautioning them about its bad features and emphasizing traditional Arab family & religious values
Mediated Assimilation
The process whereby Arab American organizations act as cultural filters to screen out some undesirable features of U.S. culture

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Power-Conflict Issues

Dominant European American majority has major say in how Arab Americans are portrayed in the media and how they are viewed and treated in U.S. institutions
Continuing societal stereotyping and discrimination have pressed some Arab Americans to deny or deemphasize their Islamic or Arab ties
Racial-ethnic identity of Arab Americans today is more than a “symbolic identity” without lasting significance