SOC220 - Exam #2

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Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Racial and Ethnic Relations

NINTH EDITION

Chapter

Chinese, Filipino, Korean, Vietnamese, and Asian-Indian

Americans

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Big Picture Questions

What role have Asian-American groups played in building up this country’s wealth and institutions?
How has systemic racism affected the Asian-American experience?
Why have numerous Asian groups recently migrated to the United States?

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

MIGRATION: AN OVERVIEW

Asian Americans often find themselves pressured by dominant Eurocentric culture to conform
Since 1980s, Filipinos, Chinese, Koreans, Vietnamese, and Asian Indians have been among the fastest-growing U.S. immigrant groups
1924 Immigration Act excluded people in Asian countries from immigrating to U.S.

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Legal Permanent Residents, by Country of Last Residence (1820–2009)

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Immigration Acts

1952 Immigration and Nationality Act
Established principles for immigration policy
1 – Reunification of families
2 – Protection of the domestic labor force
3 – Immigration of persons with needed skills
1965 Immigration Act and its amendments gave preference to family members of people already in U.S., so recent legal permanent residents are relatives of previous immigrants

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

MIGRATION:
Chinese Americans

Chinese immigration began in substantial numbers in the decade before the U.S. Civil War, with a quarter-million coming during three decades after 1860
Most were men who entered as low-wage workers, brought in to do the “dirty work” for white employers in the West
The few women who immigrated came alone, often brought by force to work as prostitutes

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

MIGRATION:
Chinese Americans, continued

1870s: U.S. economy depression led whites to accuse Chinese of driving wages to substandard level and taking white jobs
1882: Chinese Exclusion Act:
Officially prohibited direct immigration
2nd major period of immigration took place after 1965 immigration reform
Between1960 and 1979, more than 300,000 Chinese, mainly from Hong Kong and Taiwan, came to U.S.

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

MIGRATION:
Filipino Americans

U.S. took over Philippines after Spanish-American War
Imperialistic relationship established
Philippines a U.S. colony
Filipinos exempt from anti-Asian exclusionary provisions of 1917 and 1924 immigration acts
Filipinos held ambiguous legal position until allowed U.S. citizenship
30,000 were recruited to fight during WWII
These veterans were not granted right to U.S. citizenship until Immigration Act of 1990
Most still ineligible for many veterans’ benefits until 2009, when key provisions of Filipino Veterans Equity Act went into effect

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

MIGRATION:
Korean Americans

Immigration began in early 1900s
Picture Brides
Korean men sent their pictures to prospective brides in their homeland, and marriages were arranged on the basis of photographs, without the bride and groom having met
1910-1924: More than 1000 such brides came to U.S.
U.S. intervention during Korean War led to admiration of Americans and U.S.
Changes in immigration laws in 1965 opened up possibilities
Recent Census estimate: 1.6 million Americans with Korean ancestry, nearly 10% of Asian American population

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

MIGRATION:
Vietnamese Americans

Most Vietnamese immigrants have come since 1975, when U.S. involvement in Vietnam War ended
U.S. military was ally of South Vietnamese government
Large numbers of Vietnamese refugees were admitted outside usual immigration process as political refugees
1980-1990: Number of Americans with Vietnamese ancestry grew 142%
1990-2000: Population again increased dramatically
20,000-30,000 immigrate annually
Population over 1.7 million today

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

MIGRATION:
Asian-Indian Americans

Of all Asian-Pacific groups, least well known

– Asian Indians from India

1800s: 1st were Sikhs -- worked on railroads, in agriculture
Three periods evident in the migrations
1960s: male professionals--wives uneducated
1970s: included more of an occupational mixture -- more well-educated women
1980s on: larger, more diverse group – some similar to earlier immigrants & some relatives sponsored by earlier immigrants
Have had economic resources to move directly into suburbs, resulting in more geographical dispersion

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Asian Women as Immigrants

Stereotyped as being withdrawn and docile
Asian immigrant families include many women who are strong in their own right
Agents of their own destiny, often making painful decision to come to U.S.
Immigration experience often reshapes traditional gender relationships
Take a more active role in providing economic and other support for their families
This reshapes their relationships with men in their families

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

STEREOTYPES

Orientalism
Uninformed and stereotypical way of thinking of Asian people
Common stereotype is that Asians are the same, physically and culturally
Television and films portray as criminal, dangerous, or fanatical
Model minority stereotype overstates economic situation and progress and underplays racist barriers faced

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Specific Images
of Asian Americans

West Coast whites angry over Chinese arrivals
Called “coolies,” “heathens,” “mice-eaters,” or “Chinks”
Modest changes in white attitudes came after U.S. declared war on Japan in 1941
Stereotypes of Filipino immigrants have fluctuated according to their usefulness to white employers as low-wage workers
Vietnamese arrived when unemployment high, creating fears refugees would take jobs or drain government resources

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Effects of Stereotyping

Movie industry long perpetuated variety of negative stereotyped images of Asian men & women
Men portrayed as weak, sexless, or effeminate,

especially in recent years

One severe type of stereotyping
Asian-American women as exotic sex objects
Many have written that white men seek them out with images of exotic sexual relationships and/or submissive wives in their heads
3 most common surgeries to look white:
Eyelid surgery, nose reshaping, and breast augmentation

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

More Stereotyping in the Media

Over many decades, mostly white-controlled media have negatively stereotyped and mocked Asian groups
Study found widespread trivialization of Asian customs, ridicule of pronunciation, and use of inflammatory phrases
Recently, several Asian Americans targets of stereotyping in investigation of alleged illegal Clinton campaign contributions
Old racist images resurfaced
U.S. Chinese-language media subsequently turned away from San Francisco Clinton fundraiser in 2008

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Perceptions

Elite, media, and public stereotypes of Asian Americans still include notions of the latter as threatening, relatively unassimilated, culturally odd foreigners
Asian immigrants interviewed by researchers noted that they did not see themselves in racialized terms until arrival in U.S.

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

DISCRIMINATION AND CONFLICT

Harassment and violence have occurred since earliest days of Asian immigration
Periodically, some anti-Asian hate crime is reported in the media
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights has noted that such hate crimes are underreported
Police distrust and limited understanding of civil rights along with language barriers
Few interpretive services for those who don’t speak English
Adequate police protection often not provided
Controversial police strategy is photographing youth because they fit “gang profile”

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

DISCRIMINATION:
Chinese Americans

19th century: Openly anti-Chinese sentiments and discrimination common in union policies and political platforms
1982: Murder of Vincent Chin
Killers sentenced to 3 years probation and fine of $3780
Commission on Civil Rights concluded “suggestive of very little value placed on an Asian American life”
Anti-Asian attacks often illustrate not only racist violence but also confusion of non-Asians about Asian Americans
2009 survey: 7 in 10 Chinese Americans said they faced “a lot or some prejudice”

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

DISCRIMINATION:
Filipino Americans

Among earliest of Asian-Pacific immigrants and suffered many violent attacks
White workers bitter about farmers’ use of Filipinos
Prolonged riot by whites in 1930
Reflected decade of tensions exacerbated by newspaper commentaries
In more recent decades, whites have periodically directed hostility towards Filipinos
Also targeted via racial profiling by government

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

DISCRIMINATION:
Korean Americans

Korean-American merchants in some communities of color have faced hostility
Black residents have sometimes charged that some merchants treat black customers rudely and discriminate against black employees and customers
Merchants cite high level of crime they face from black criminals
Each group accuses the other of racially motivated violence
During LA riot, Koreans felt betrayed as police officers protected larger shopping centers owned by whites
One factor contributing to tensions is that many Asian immigrants already have antiblack stereotypes

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Korean-Black Relations

Negative stereotypes Korean and other Asian immigrants bring with them can become basis for negative interactions with African Americans
Such conflict is not just about stereotyping by blacks or Koreans, but is a reflection of a larger system of mostly white-generated racial framing
Another source of bitterness for blacks is unfounded belief that federal government helps Koreans start small businesses
Koreans usually pool family resources to start businesses

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

DISCRIMINATION:
Vietnamese Americans

Many fished as a livelihood in their homeland, and some have moved to fishing communities on U.S. Gulf Coast
Generally took low-paying jobs such as cleaning fish or working in kitchens; mostly accepted in these jobs
When they began to buy boats and started to compete with white fishers, white attitudes changed
Have also faced conflict with black residents in communities where they operate their businesses

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

DISCRIMINATION:
Asian-Indian Americans

Their children have been called derogatory names such as “dot heads” and “terrorists”
They have been the subject of racist remarks by white politicians
They have faced significant violence
They have faced significant harassment by police and other community members
Edison, N.J., rally was held recently to protest incidents seen as police brutality

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

ORGANIZING AND ACTIVISM

Number of Asian-American voters increasing dramatically
Vote called a “sleeping giant” of U.S. politics
Nationally, large proportion have immigrated too recently to be eligible to vote, and registration rate of eligible voters is low, though this is changing
Recently, face periodic discrimination at the polls
Faulty translations of candidates’ names, racist remarks, and lack of assistance

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Little Representation

2008: Representative Anh Cao (R-La.) became the only Vietnamese American to ever serve in Congress
2003: Bobby Jindal (R-La.) became only the second Asian-Indian American ever elected to Congress; he then became governor of Louisiana
Over the decades, only a few Asian Americans have served in the U.S. Congress; just11 voting members in both houses of Congress as of early 2010
Advances at state level slow though growing numbers have run for office since 1990s

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Pan-Asian
Organizations and Coalitions

Panethnicity
The generalization of solidarity among ethnic subgroups
Began on college campuses in the 1960s
Women, however, restricted to subordinate roles in panethnic organizations
Term “Asian American” now generally preferred to the term “Oriental,” which has its roots in European colonialism and imperialism
Coalitions with non-Asian groups also created

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

ORGANIZING:
Chinese Americans

Long history of immigration and among the most politically active
With new immigration after 1965 came renewed political activity
In 2000s, concerned about local and national issues, Asians became more politically active
Chinese Americans are growing in political influence and are increasingly active in national politics

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

ORGANIZING:
Filipino Americans

United Farm Workers created by merger between Mexican American organizing drive and Filipino labor organization
The National Filipino American Council
Fought for fairer immigration laws
In spite of commitment to becoming citizens, Filipinos rarely elected or appointed to major political offices
Numerous Filipino organizations have responded to Philippine government call for investment in the islands to overcome economic crises

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

ORGANIZING:
Korean Americans

Since the 1980s, Korean American Coalition chapters have been formed in several cities
Became very active after 1992 LA riot
Periodically have vigorously demonstrated against discrimination and other mistreatment
Many maintain close ties to Korea
After riots, officials from Korea visited area even before U.S. presidential candidates
Sent more than $1 million dollars for North Korean food shortage
Have become involved in U.S. policy debates over the securing of nuclear weapons by North Korea

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

ORGANIZING:
Vietnamese Americans

Home country remains important for Vietnamese Americans
Half favor establishment of diplomatic ties with Communist homeland
Like other Asians, still stereotyped as foreigners
Recently created numerous important community organizations and institutions
Developed important national organizations working for southeast Asian-American concerns

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

ORGANIZING:
Asian-Indian Americans

Because of relatively recent arrival in large numbers, have relatively little political visibility
By 1990s, forming organizations designed to increase political influence and fight discrimination
1990s: New York Taxi Workers Alliance
Organized large group of South Asian taxi drivers to protest poor working conditions and poor treatment by city officials
Organized to counter numerous hate crimes since 9/11

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

THE ECONOMY

Recently U.S. Civil Rights Commission has documented exploitation of Asian and other immigrant groups
Even highly educated Asians have faced significant barriers
1990s study found discrimination to be even more severe for Asian-American women
Discrimination based on physical appearance, language proficiency, or verbal accent is common

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Occupational Distribution by Group (2008)

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

THE ECONOMY:
Chinese Americans

19th century: Chinese immigrants recruited to fill less-skilled jobs in the U.S.
Recently, Chinese immigrants’ prospects not good because they lack money, skills, and ability to speak English well
Most have settled in preexisting urban Chinese communities
Better educated among these postwar immigrants have generally found better jobs
Globalization of U.S. economy since 1970s seen in major growth in high-tech industries with a desire for cheap labor

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

THE ECONOMY:
Chinese Americans, continued

By early 2000s, white executives at some major companies doing business in Asia discovered hiring Chinese and other Asian Americans for management positions smarter than sending white executives
Chinese community represented at both extremes of economic spectrum
At other end, nearly 9.2% of Chinese families live below poverty line
Economic discrimination takes many forms

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Income Level by Group (2008)

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

THE ECONOMY:
Filipino Americans

First recruited as farm workers for Hawaiian sugar plantations and west coast farms
1930s: Filipino Labor Union formed
Led strike of workers met with violent force by whites backed by police
Military-related Filipino communities were created on West Coast when military recruited Filipinos as civilian workforce
Have faced serious job discrimination for decades

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

THE ECONOMY:
Korean Americans

Language barriers and racial discrimination kept early Korean immigrants from obtaining employment in accordance with their abilities
Many moved into self-employment because of exclusion from professions in which they were trained
Many prefer the freedom of self-employment given discriminatory barriers
Many arrived with some capital and often have the support of the larger Asian community

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

THE ECONOMY:
Vietnamese Americans

Relatively short history in U.S.
Those who immigrated right after the Vietnam war more affluent and better educated than those who came later
Many faced downward mobility
Later immigrants faced low-wage jobs and poverty
Not been as economically successful as first arrivals
Still face significant discrimination
As with other Asians, many live in relatively high-cost state of California

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

THE ECONOMY:
Asian-Indian Americans

Most of country’s more than 2.7 million Asian-Indian Americans are relatively recent immigrants
Many brought monetary capital and cultural capital in form of college education and professional training
Since 1980s many skilled immigrants have gone to California’s Silicone Valley
Those reporting only Asian-Indian ancestry are by far the largest proportion of college graduates and professional/managerial employees of all Asian-Pacific American groups

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

EDUCATION

In earlier decades, Asian children often segregated in separate schools
1927 Supreme Court decision upheld Mississippi’s segregation of children of “Mongolian race”
Began to break down after WWII, but de facto segregation persisted
Most Asian American groups place heavy stress on educational success
Some, particularly suburban youth, have come to accept this stereotype of themselves

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

School Problems

Many immigrant children face problems of limited English proficiency and shock of unfamiliar culture when they enter schools
1990s report of U.S. Civil Rights Commission reported only small proportion of limited-English-proficiency Asian children had teachers who spoke their native language
Public schools in various cities are settings for substantial hostility against Asian students

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Educational Achievement

Research indicates problems faced by Asian college students; anti-Asian hate crimes common on numerous college campuses
Many observers noted fact that Asian Americans have higher educational levels than population as a whole
Various explanations offered to explain success
Rooted in Asian culture’s traditional reverence for learning or in strong family support
Educational achievement often compared by whites with black or Latino/Latina groups
Comparison, however, is not so simple

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

FULL ASSIMILATION
FOR ASIAN AMERICANS

Assimilation analysts underscore Asian American progress in economic integration
Argue that anti-Asian discrimination is collapsing and assimilation into dominant institutions is well underway
National Asian Pacific American Bar Association (NAPABA)
Opposed appointment of Clarence Thomas to U.S. Supreme Court, challenging his image of Asian Americans as “model minorities”

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Transitions

Asian Americans who fall into high assimilation/low ethnic identity category are more “core American” than Asian
Asian Americans in high assimilation/high ethnic identity category differ from those in first category because they retain strong group identity
Study of Chinese and Japanese Americans found that those in 3rd and 4th generations often highly oriented to white middle-class cultural styles
Yet, most still have strong sense of group identity

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Transitions, continued

Low assimilation/high group identity Asians are usually recent immigrants or those who have spent their lives in traditional enclaves
Recent surveys of children of Asian immigrants indicate 70-90% can speak only English; few are fluent in parents’ language
In Asian-American communities, generational conflicts are still conspicuous
Vietnamese Americans, as an example, use various methods to combat a too-rapid assimilation of the younger generation

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Ties to Culture of Origin

Many 1st generation Korean immigrants also committed to home-country language and culture
Studies of Korean youth show a significant assimilation to dominant culture, especially with regard to popular culture, but a respect for traditional filial obligations
Many Asian-Indian Americans relatively well integrated into dominant culture
Often know English well -- once colonized by Britain
Still marry within group and maintain religious institutions
One sign of slower overall assimilation of most Asian-Pacific groups compared to Japanese Americans is lower out-marriage rates to non-Asians

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Relationships and Identity

In some areas, rate of marriage within Asian American umbrella group has grown in recent years
Recent study of Asian-white interracial relationships in Southwest found that “interracial intimacy is still regulated by racial, gender, class, and national hierarchies”
Construction of Asian American identity is a “process that involves recognition of the shared personal experiences and orientations of Asian-origin persons, including that of being racially labeled as Asian by the dominant society”

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Questions from a Power-Conflict Perspective

Image of Asian immigrants is often one of poor immigrants working their way up to success
However, majority of Asians who came between 1960s and mid-1970s were middle-class with white-collar backgrounds
Power-conflict analysts showed how, over centuries, powerful whites have positioned non-European groups in the established racial hierarchy

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Power-Conflict Perspective, continued

New immigrant groups are placed somewhere in the long-established white-to-black hierarchy of exploitation and status
At certain times in U.S. history, powerful whites have elevated some Asians as individuals or groups from a lower rung to an intermediate rung
However, at earlier points in history, most Asians were placed on or near the bottom rung of the racial hierarchy
Today, certain Asian Americans constructed as “nearer-to-white,” but this serves white purposes

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Power-Conflict Perspective, continued

Whites can move to criticize African or Latino/Latina Americans for not being like stereotyped Asian American model
Model minority perspective obscures problems and needs of many Asian Americans who face continuing discrimination, stereotyping, and social problems
Secondary-structural integration of Asian Americans into economy is not untroubled; many suffer racial discrimination in employment and educational institutions

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Conclusion

Pressure to conform to whiteness is intense, yet conforming does not bring acceptance because of the white racial framing of Asian Americans
Nonetheless, Asian Americans have long struggled to protect their civil rights and growing political power