SOC220 - Exam #2

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Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Racial and Ethnic Relations

NINTH EDITION

Chapter

Japanese Americans

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Big Picture Questions

What role have Japanese Americans played in building up this country’s wealth and institutions?
How has a white racial framing shaped negative perceptions of Japanese Americans?
Does the “middleman minority” theoretical perspective fit the experiences of Japanese Americans?

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

INTRODUCTION: ASIAN AMERICANS

Asian-American & Asian-Pacific American
Umbrella terms for Americans with ancestral roots in Asia or the Pacific Islands
Changes in U.S. immigration laws since 1965, especially elimination of discriminatory quotas, have allowed a substantial increase in immigration from Asia and Pacific Islands

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

JAPANESE AMERICANS

Now nearly 1.3 million and one of the oldest Asian-American groups
Model Minority Stereotype
Characterizes certain Asian American groups as exemplary in socioeconomic and moral characteristics, often as compared to other people of color
Most heavily concentrated in western states
Still impacted by stereotypes of “crafty Orientals,” images of militaristic expansionism from the 1930s, resentment of “unfair” economic competition

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

MIGRATION: AN OVERVIEW

Asian and Pacific Americans include many immigrant groups
Historically, immigration of early Asian groups proceeded serially
Result of white employers seeking new laborers and of white workers motivated by racism to stop immigration by Asian worker groups
Prevention of Chinese immigration in 1880s
Japanese workers were recruited to fill demand for labor

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Asian-Pacific American Groups (1980-2008)

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Early Immigration

Gunboat Imperialism
Imperialism backed by the use or threat of military force
Japan’s initial contact with U.S.
Hawaii became first destination for Japanese immigrants in U.S.
231,000 migrated there between 1868 and 1929
Became part of racial hierarchy headed by white planters
Learned they could not “advance themselves through individualism and small business” as on the mainland
Became laborers and adopted strategy of “unionization, politics, and collective action”

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Mainland Migration

Between 1880s and Gentleman’s Agreement in 1908
More than 150,000 entered
Mainland immigrants moved into greater diversity of economic positions
White employers favored labor immigration
White workers and unions opposed it
Unlike earlier Chinese immigrants, Japanese were able for a time to bring in families

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

More Racist Agitation and Restrictions

White writers and politicians expressed fear of Asian immigrants
The American Legion and California Farm Bureau Association pressed for exclusion
Congress succumbed and passed 1924 Immigration Act
Established racist quotas that gave preference to “Nordic” countries
Government action against Asians spurred by white unions and hate groups
Japanese were largest group of Asian Americans at about 1 million in 1965

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

STEREOTYPES

Stereotypes of Asian Americans take a variety of forms
Robert Lee – “Six Images”
“Pollutant,” “coolie,” “deviant,” “yellow peril,” “model minority,” and “gook”
Within short period, early laborers gained farm land by contract or lease
U.S. presidents, senators, and ordinary whites exaggerated differences between themselves and Japanese immigrants
U.S. movie industry played important role in circulation of stereotypes

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

War Propaganda

Japanese were considered an “inferior race” with the brashness to challenge European and American interests in the Pacific
California attorney general and later U.S. chief justice Earl Warren depicted Japanese as dangerous
National press argued there were many enemy agents in this population
No Japanese American ever proven to have collaborated with enemy during WWII
Stereotypes slowly began to change after WWII

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Recent Distortions, Stereotypes, and Omissions

Study of Japanese Americans in 1970s found numerous distortions in history textbooks
Most omitted brutal exploitation by U.S. employers in Hawaii and California
Japanese and other Asian Americans reported whites frequently congratulate them on how well they speak English as though they were foreign born
Racist framing and actions often involve mocking language and cultures of Americans of color

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Continued Racist Framing

Debates about negative images in media, 2000s reemergence
Disney film Pearl Harbor
use of derogatory epithet “Japs” and one-sided portrayal of WWII
Paramount film The Goods: Live Hard, Sell Hard
depiction of white executive making derogatory references to “Japs” and citing Pearl Harbor attack to incite coworker violence against Asian American employee
Other examples
San Francisco radio station – anti-Asian remarks
Toledo, Ohio, radio station – language mocking
Rosie O’Donnell – language mocking
Adidas -- caricature of buck-toothed, slant-eyed Asian as logo
Such stereotypes integral part of old white racial framing of society

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

REPRESSION AND
VIOLENT ATTACKS

Anti-Japanese movements sometimes turned to violence
First acts came within decade of their arrival
Scientists sent by Japan to help with earthquake relief after the San Francisco quake of 1906 were attacked by white men
Escalated at beginning of WWII
1942: whites carried out attacks on Japanese Americans and their property

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

The Ugly Specter of U.S. Concentration Camps

Japanese military victories in the Pacific increased fear of Japanese invasion on the U.S. mainland
1st major phase of federal action: Americans whose ancestry was linked to countries at war with the U.S. were moved from sensitive areas and their travel restricted
2nd stage: Executive Order 9066: Residence was restricted and Japanese Americans were detained, their businesses sold at a loss
In 1942, more than 2/3 Japanese detained inland were native-born U.S. citizens
Protested their discrimination in numerous demonstrations

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Why the Camps Were Created

U.S. Supreme Court upheld military decision though clear violation of Constitutional civil rights
American leaders saw struggle in the Pacific as a racial war
Japanese Americans fought unsuccessfully in courts and with demonstrations
This racialized oppression of U.S. citizens occurred at a time when U.S. government was proclaiming values of freedom and democracy to a war-torn world

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Later Impact

After WWII, Japanese Americans on west coast still faced economic discrimination and violent attacks
Fastest-growing category of hate crimes in recent decades has been against Asian Americans
Lieutenant Ehren Watada
Protested Iraq War by refusing deployment
Argued that Iraq War violated U.S. and international law
Connected his conscientious stand with those of the concentration camp era who actively stood up against oppression

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

THE POLITICAL ARENA

1929: Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) formed
Since WWII, JACL and other organizations have won political and legal victories
Organizations continued to press government for adequate repayment for losses
1987: $1.2 billion in reparations approved
2001: memorial to Japanese Americans who were incarcerated or were soldiers who served in U.S. military was dedicated in Washington, D.C.

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Government Officials

Japanese-American World War II veterans elected to Hawaiian state legislature led to statehood of islands in 1950s
Political victories on mainland difficult because of dilution of Japanese votes in predominantly non-Asian populations
Historically, many Asian Americans reluctant to participate actively in politics
Fear of intensifying discrimination against their groups
Japanese and other Asians who enter political arena encounter overtly racist reactions

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Politics, Stereotyping, and Competition with Japan

Acts of vandalism and violence by whites against Japanese Americans motivated by fear of economic competition with Japan
In recent decades, Japan’s economic development has surpassed U.S. in many areas
Increasing unemployment in local and national recessions have periodically fueled tendency to blame Asians for U.S. economic troubles
Anti-Japanese hostility among non-Asians can still turn to threats of violence today

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Protest Organizations
and Group Pride

Voluntary associations formed in early 1900s to combat anti-Japanese discrimination
1960s: pan-Asian organizations appeared, often established by younger generations
Numerous colleges and universities have developed Asian-American studies programs
In recent years, however, hate crimes directed against Asians have persisted on campuses – and off

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

THE ECONOMY

First four generations of Japanese
Issei (born in Japan), Nisei, Sansei, and Yonsei
Issei played “middleman minority” role
Most early immigrants came from eleven Japanese prefectures which were represented by an association in the U.S.
1913 California Alien Land Law
Stipulated “aliens” could not buy land or lease it for more than 3 years
Often became gardeners or nursery operators

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Employment

Evelyn Nakano Glenn: “Japanese-American women labored along with men to secure their own and their families’ livelihood”
Some worked as domestic servants to whites
Resisted oppression in covert ways
As need for labor grew after WWII, white employers finally began to hire Japanese
Second and later generations gradually moved from small business economy to professional and other white-collar jobs

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Occupational Mobility

Income data reveal economic success
Yet, they face exclusion from certain positions in many business, entertainment, political, and civil service areas
Glass Ceiling
An unwritten policy in some organizations that limits advancement of certain people based on their racial group or gender

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

EDUCATION

Issei had strong commitment to education
Japanese Americans developed their own schools to educate children in the Japanese language and culture
By 1930s, making great strides despite discrimination
Wartime imprisonment interrupted educational pursuits
Japanese Americans among the most educated Americans

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

RELIGION

Immigrants brought Buddhism and Shintoism
White exclusionists claimed temples were areas of emperor worship
Today, many Japanese Americans are members of Protestant churches
Churches second in importance only to family in cementing the community
Resurgence in Buddhism in recent decades among Asians and non-Asians

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

ASSIMILATION PERSPECTIVES

Japanese Americans are probably the most assimilated to Euro-American core culture of all Americans of color
Assimilationists argue that some cultural assimilation came early for Issei
2nd generation Nisei became bicultural
3rd generation Sansei and 4th generation Yonsei

closed the gap in some aspects with the dominant culture

Later generations highly oriented to norms of white middle-class culture, retaining few Asian traditions

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Assimilation

Structural assimilation at secondary-group levels significant for Japanese Americans
Behavior-receptional and attitude-receptional assimilation showed little change until after WWII
Discrimination and prejudice marred lives of Issei and Nisei for first 60 years
By 1980s whites did “not see [Japanese Americans] as very different from themselves”
High rate of intermarriage with whites
Still experience substantial levels of

subtle, blatant, and/or covert discrimination

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Intermarriage and Traditions

Asian-white marriages illegal until late 1940s
Out-marriage rates to whites now high in California
2006 census: A majority were married within the Asian-American umbrella group
Few have rejected their Japanese cultural heritage or identity
Younger Japanese Americans retaining some distinctive organizations and traditions

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Measuring Assimilation

Even with signs of significant acculturation to the core culture, most Japanese-American college students hold values close to those of their parents
Kitano and Daniels: Asian Americans can be grouped into major categories based on
Degree of overall assimilation to dominant Eurocentric culture and institutions
Strength of “ethnic identity”
Many Japanese Americans (and other Asian Americans) in 3rd and later generations are in “high assimilation, low ethnic identity” category
Hapa
The Hawaiian word for “those of mixed ancestry”

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Power-Conflict View

Few analysts have interpreted Japanese-American experience from power-conflict perspective
Because the U.S. was an imperial power in the Pacific, U.S. labor agents had easy entry into Asian countries and could dictate agreements benefiting U.S. employers
At first Japanese Americans were forced by white-generated discrimination to become low-wage workers

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Power-Conflict View, continued

Pressure to acculturate largely coercive for first two generations
Early commitment to cultural assimilation in Japanese communities was a reaction to severe racial discrimination
Implicit bias in traditional assimilation model
Assimilation theory emerged in a period of intense white agitation against Japanese immigration and reflected racist views of white scholars
U.S. government played role in defining racial groups

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Criticizing the “Model Minority” Stereotype

Paramount weakness in assimilation analysis is reliance on a “model minority”
Whites intentionally created model minority during period of Africa- American protest to suggest that African Americans could achieve by working harder rather than protesting institutional discrimination
Educational opportunities not available to blacks helped Asians get white-collar jobs after the war

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

“Success”

Success came at the price of marginalization in small-business economy and later in certain professions
Economic success a result of carving distinctive niches, which is not in line with idealistic assimilation models
Bias in traditional cultural-background explanation
The idea that racial or ethnic groups whose values are closest to those of the dominant white group are the ones who should be and will be successful

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

Evolving Patterns

Janice Tanaka
Nisei greatly affected by internment and placed pressure on themselves and their children to conform to white perspectives and customs
Japanese immigration and Japanese-American integration into the dominant society have been shaped by U.S. corporations’ intervention in the world economy
New economic alliances in the Pacific Rim are bypassing U.S.

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

What Remains

Japan is powerful in Pacific Rim alliances
This is part of the reason there has been relatively little recent migration from Japan to U.S.
Some non-Asian Americans, angry over domestic troubles, confuse Japanese Americans (and other Asian Americans) with the Japanese
Asian Americans are blamed unfairly for economic troubles caused by U.S. employers investing overseas

Racial and Ethnic Relations, Ninth Edition Joe R. Feagin • Clairece Booher Feagin

What Remains

JACL: “[For a time] Japan was perceived as ‘taking over’ the U.S. by buying companies and real estate.
There was not much awareness that Great Britain and Canada, respectively, were the largest foreign investor and the largest foreign owner of real estate in the U.S. at the time