Leadership Action Plan

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Chapter 10 Leadership in Teams and Decision Groups

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Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Understand the processes that determine group performance. • Understand how leaders can influence group processes and improve performance. • Understand the leadership challenges for different types of teams. • Understand effective procedures for leading teams. • Understand the primary leadership functions in decision groups. • Understand procedures for leading successful meetings.

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Most organizations have small subunits (departments, sections) that perform a functional task (e.g., production, operations, sales, accounting, research) under the supervision of an appointed manager. In many of these subunits, the members perform the same type of work, but they work alone, do not depend on each other, and need little coordination (e.g., sales representatives, professors, tax accountants, machine operators). This type of work unit is sometimes called a coacting group, because there is little role interdependence among the members.

The word team is correctly used to describe an interacting group that is small and has members with a common purpose, interdependent roles, and complementary skills.

To clarify the distinction, interacting teams are found in basketball and soccer, whereas in bowling or wrestling the “teams” are actually coacting groups. Dyadic leadership theories are useful for describing leadership in coacting groups, but for interacting teams some additional leadership processes are needed to explain team performance.

A growing trend in organizations is to give more responsibility for important activities to teams, and in some cases they are empowered to make decisions formerly made by individual managers. Several distinct types of teams can be found in organizations, including functional work teams, cross-functional teams, self-managed teams, and top executive teams. Table 10-1

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Table 10-1 Common Characteristics of Four Types of Teams Defining Characteristic Functional

Operating Team Cross- Functional Team

Self- Managed Operating Team

Top Executive Team

Autonomy to determine mission and objectives

Low Low to moderate Low to moderate High

Autonomy to determine work procedures

Low to moderate High High High

Authority of the internal leader

High Moderate to high Low High

Duration of existence for the team

High Low to moderate High High

Stability of the membership High Low to moderate High High

Diversity of members in functional background

Low High Low High

compares the different types of teams with regard to duration of the team’s existence, stability of team membership, functional diversity of members, authority of the internal leader, autonomy to determine the mission, and autonomy to determine work processes. The extent to which members are co-located or geographically dispersed (“virtual teams”) is another basis for describing teams, but some degree of virtuality may be found in any type of team. This chapter examines what has been learned about effective leadership in functional work teams, cross-functional teams, and self-managed teams. Executive teams will be described in Chapter 11 .

A related topic is leadership in the context of group meetings. As we saw in Chapter 5 , meetings are commonly used to make decisions in organizations. Behavioral scientists have been studying leadership processes in such meetings for more than four decades, and practitioners have also contributed to our knowledge about the subject. The last section of the chapter examines effective leadership in meetings held to solve a problem or make a decision.

The chapter begins with a description of collective processes that determine team performance.

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Determinants of Team Performance In the past half century, theoretical explanations for team performance have been proposed by many scholars (DeChurch & Mesmer-Magnus, 2010; Gladstein, 1984; Hackman, Brousseau, & Weiss, 1976; Hewett, O’Brien, & Hornik, 1974; Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2006; McGrath, 1984; O’Brien & Kabanoff, 1981; Pearce & Ravlin, 1987; Shiflett, 1979; Wofford, 1982; Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001). Several performance determinants have been identified for work groups and teams (see Table 10-2 ).). Empirical studies on small groups and teams show that leaders can influence these performance determinants, and their relative importance depends on the type of team and situation (Burke et al., 2006; Hulsheger, Anderson, & Salgado, 2009). Each performance determinant and ways for leaders to influence it is briefly explained in this section of the chapter.

Table 10-2 Determinants of Team Performance • Commitment to task objectives and strategies • Member skills and role clarity • Internal organization and coordination • External coordination • Resources and political support • Mutual trust, cohesiveness, and cooperation • Collective efficacy and potency • Accurate, shared mental models • Collective learning • Member Diversity

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Commitment to Task Objectives and Strategies Member commitment to task objectives and performance strategies for attaining them facilitates cooperation, innovation, and extra effort to accomplish difficult tasks (Hulsheger et al., 2009; Mathieu & Rapp, 2009; Pearce & Ensley, 2004; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Ahearne, 1997). Leadership behaviors that are especially relevant for increasing member commitment to shared objectives include: (1) articulating an appealing vision that links the task objectives to member values and ideals; (2) explaining why a project or new initiative is important; (3) setting task objectives that are clear and challenging; (4) planning relevant performance strategies for attaining the objectives; and (5) empowering members to participate in planning activities and developing creative solutions to problems.

In general, there is a positive correlation between member empowerment and group performance (Burke et al., 2006). However, empowerment is not always successful, and many conditions facilitate or inhibit the effects of empowerment in teams (Cox, Pearce, & Perry, 2003; Seers, Keller, & Wilkerson, 2003). Examples include group size, diversity of members, the interpersonal skills and maturity of members, the nature of the task or mission, and competing loyalties of members to external constituents.

Member Skills and Role Clarity Group performance will be higher when members have the knowledge and skills necessary to do the work, and they understand what to do, how to do it, and when it must be done (Morgeson, Reider, & Campion, 2005). Member skills and clear role expectations are more important when the task is complex and difficult to learn. A leader can do several things to improve member skills. When the team is being formed, or replacements are needed for departing members, the leader can influence the selection of new members and ensure an appropriate mix of complementary skills (Klimoski & Jones, 1995). In a newly formed team, or when the team has a new type of task to perform, the leader can clearly explain member responsibilities and relevant procedures for performing specific types of activities (Marks, Zaccaro, & Mathieu, 2000). At appropriate times in the performance cycle, leaders can assess the skills of current members to identify any deficiencies, provide constructive feedback and coaching, and arrange for members to receive necessary instruction in other ways (e.g., from more experienced members, or in workshops and courses).

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Internal Organization and Coordination The performance of a team depends not only on the motivation and skills of members, but also on how members are organized to use their skills. The design of work roles and the assignment of people to them determine how efficiently the team carries out its work. Performance will suffer if a team has talented people but they are given tasks for which their skills are irrelevant, or if the team uses a performance strategy that is not consistent with member skills.

Team performance also depends on the extent to which the interdependent activities of different members are mutually consistent and synchronized. A high level of coordination is especially important when the team performs a complex task under rapidly changing conditions. Coordination is determined by decisions made during the planning phase prior to the start of a new task, and a team will usually perform a new task better if members plan an explicit strategy that takes into account potential obstacles and problems that could limit performance (Hackman & Morris, 1975; Tesluk & Mathieu, 1999). Coordination is also facilitated by adjustments in member behavior during the team’s performance of the task (Rico, Sanchez-Manzanares, Gil, & Gibson, 2008).

The increased importance of cooperation and coordination among interdependent members of teams makes leadership more difficult than in coacting work groups. A leader can do several things to ensure that necessary activities are well organized and carried out in a timely, efficient way. Relevant leadership behaviors include: (1) planning how to make efficient use of personnel and resources; (2) making contingency plans to deal with possible obstacles and emergencies; (3) involving members with relevant expertise in planning team activities; (4) leading meetings to collectively solve problems and plan activities; (5) planning how to schedule and sequence activities to avoid unnecessary delays or wasted time; (6) and actively monitoring and directing the work.

When the team performs a complex task under rapidly changing conditions, it may be necessary to have members share some of the responsibility for internal coordination. The leader can help members learn to anticipate each other’s reactions to changing conditions and quickly adjust their own behavior as needed. Developing member skills about how to work together as a team is facilitated by ensuring that they understand how their roles are inter-related and by frequent rehearsal of complex activities. Training together under realistic conditions is especially important for teams that have difficult, dangerous

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activities to perform (e.g., combat teams, disaster relief teams, emergency medical teams, SWAT teams, firefighting teams).

External Coordination The performance of a team also depends upon adjusting their activities to be consistent with the activities in other parts of the organization, and the importance of this external coordination increases as interdependence increases (Marrone, 2010; Marks, DeChurch, Mathieu, Panzer, & Alonso, 2005). It is essential for leaders to facilitate communication and coordination not only with other parts of the same organization, but also with outsiders whose decisions and actions affect the group (Ancona, 1990; Galbraith, 1973; Marks, Zaccaro, & Mathieu, 2000; Sundstrom, DeMeuse, & Futrell, 1990).

Many specific types of leadership behaviors are relevant for improving external coordination and adaptation. Examples include: (1) maintaining a network of contacts who can provide relevant information; (2) encouraging members to develop their own networks of useful contacts; (3) consulting with other subunits about plans and decisions that affect them; (4) monitoring progress in operations involving other subunits or organizations; (5) meeting with clients or users to learn more about their needs; and (6) negotiating agreements with clients. As in the case of internal coordination, responsibility for the leadership functions can be shared by members of the team.

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Resources and Political Support Group performance also depends on getting essential resources, and political support from outside sources (Ancona & Caldwell, 1992; Druskat & Wheeler, 2003; Marrone, Tesluk, & Carson, 2007; Peters, O’Connor, & Eulberg, 1985; Tesluk & Mathieu, 1999). Relevant resources may include budgetary funds, tools and equipment, supplies and materials, and facilities. A production team cannot maintain a high level of output without a dependable supply of materials. An air force crew will be rendered ineffective if they have no jet fuel to fly their plane. Maintaining a dependable supply of resources is especially important when the work cannot be done without them and no substitutes can be found. Resource acquisition is less important for a group that needs few resources to do the work or has its own ample supply of resources.

An important leadership responsibility is to obtain essential resources, assistance, and support from outside sources. Examples of relevant leadership behaviors include: (1) planning the resources required for a special project or activity; (2) lobbying with superiors or outsiders to provide additional resources; (3) influencing superiors to authorize use of unusual equipment, supplies, or materials; (4) promoting and defending the reputation of the team with superiors; (5) establishing cooperative relationships with outsiders who are a potential source of necessary resources and assistance; and (6) negotiating favorable agreements with suppliers and vendors.

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Cooperation and Mutual Trust Cooperation and mutual trust are important determinants of performance in groups where member roles are highly interdependent. A high level of cooperation and mutual trust is more likely when members identify with the team or work unit, value their membership, and are very cohesive (Barrick, Stewart, Neubert, & Mount, 1998; Watson, Kumar, & Michaelsen, 1993; Van der Vegt & Bunderson, 2005). It is more difficult to have a high level of cohesiveness and group identification in newly formed teams, in teams with frequent changes in membership, in teams with members who represent competing subunits of the organization, in teams with members who are culturally diverse, in teams with emotionally immature members, and in teams with members who must work in close proximity for long periods of time under stressful conditions (e.g., crew of a submarine). Social identity theories of effective leadership describe the processes by which leaders help to define the identity of a group and the meaning of membership (e.g., Reicher, Haslam, & Hopkins, 2005; van Knippenberg, van Knippenberg, De Cremer, & Hogg, 2004). There are many ways a leader can increase mutual trust and collective identification with the team. Examples include: (1) articulating an appealing vision of what the team can jointly accomplish; (2) using symbols and rituals to make membership more unique and desirable; (3) conducting team building activities; and (4) making recognition and rewards contingent on member contributions to team performance.

High cohesiveness can be a mixed blessing when a group is making decisions. A cohesive group of people with similar values and attitudes is more likely to agree on a decision, but such groups sometimes foster a phenomenon called “groupthink” (Janis, 1972). When members of a cohesive group are unwilling to risk social rejection for questioning a majority viewpoint or presenting a dissenting opinion, the critical evaluation of ideas is inhibited and creativity is reduced. The group strives to maintain the illusion of internal harmony by avoiding open expression of disagreement, and they may agree too quickly without a complete, objective evaluation of the alternatives. Members in these groups may develop an illusion of invulnerability, which will cause them to overestimate the probability of success for a risky course of action. If the group has a shared illusion of moral superiority, it will be easier to justify a course of action that would normally be considered unethical by individual members.

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Collective Efficacy and Potency Member commitment depends in part on the shared belief of members that the team is capable of successfully carrying out its mission and achieving specific task objectives (Bandura, 2000; Guzzo, Yost, Campbell, & Shea, 1993; Pearce, Gallagher, & Ensley, 2002). This shared belief is called “collective efficacy” or “potency.” Several studies provide evidence that it is related to team performance, (e.g., Campion, Papper, & Medsker, 1996; Chen & Bliese, 2002; Gibson, 2001; Gibson, Randel, & Earley, 2000; Gully, Incalcaterra, Joshi, & Beaubien, 2002; Mulvey & Klein, 1998; Pearce, Gallagher, & Ensley, 2002; Wu, Tsui, & Kinicki, 2010). Collective efficacy is likely to be higher for a team with strong member skills, a high level of mutual trust and cooperation, ample resources, and a relevant performance strategy. Prior success can increase collective efficacy, which in turn can enhance a team’s subsequent performance. A downward spiral can also occur, with failure resulting in lower collective efficacy, negative affect, and additional declines in performance. High collective efficacy is desirable, but the perception of capabilities should be realistic; as noted earlier, overconfidence can encourage a team to pursue very risky strategies that will fail.

A leader can influence collective efficacy in several ways (Bass, Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003; Eden, 1990; Gil, Rico, Alcover, & Barrasa, 2005; Kouzes & Posner, 1987; Lester, Meglino, & Korsgaard, 2002; Sivasubramaniam, Murry, Avolio, & Jung, 2002; Sosik, Kahai, & Avolio, 1998; Srivastava, Bartol, & Locke, 2006; Sutton & Woodman, 1989). Behaviors that influence collective efficacy include: (1) expressing optimism and confidence in the team; (2) setting realistic goals or targets that will provide an opportunity to experience early success; (3) helping the team find ways to overcome obstacles; and (4) celebrating progress and important achievements.

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Accurate, Shared Mental Models The term “mental model” is commonly used to describe conscious beliefs and implicit assumptions about the causes of performance and the best way to improve it (Cannon-Bowers, Salas, & Converse, 1993; Klimoski & Mohammed, 1994; Senge, 1990). Research on teams found that they are likely to have higher performance if members have a shared mental model that is accurate (Edwards, Day, Arthur, & Bel, 2006; Lim & Klein, 2006; Mohammed, Ferzandi, & Hamilton, 2010). Problem solving is more difficult when team members have different assumptions about the cause of the problem. A shared understanding about cause-effect relationships can facilitate the development of effective strategies and plans by a team and increase their commitment to implement them. However, group performance is unlikely to improve unless the mental model is not only shared but also accurate.

Leaders can help members identify their assumptions about cause-effect relationships, determine ways to assess the accuracy of these assumptions, and jointly develop a more accurate mental model. Ways to improve understanding and agreement about causes of problems and good solutions include the following: (1) hold a meeting to discuss member assumptions and beliefs and identify any supporting evidence; (2) examine relevant publications on the subject; (3) implement more accurate measures of team processes and performance determinants; (4) conduct controlled experiments to assess cause- effect relationships; and (5) conduct after-activity reviews to improve learning from experience (see description later in this chapter).

How leaders can facilitate collective learning was described in Chapter 4 , and research on teams provides evidence for the importance of this leadership function (Edmondson, 2003; Morgeson, DeRue, & Karam, 2010).

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Member Diversity The extent to which members vary with regard to personality, demographic attributes (e.g., age, gender, ethnic identity, education), and functional specialization has implications for group processes and outcomes (Joshi & Roh, 2009; Kearney, Gebert, & Voelpel, 2009; Triandis, Kurowski, & Gelfand, 1994; Watson, Kumar, & Michaelsen, 1993). Groups with diverse membership are likely to be less cohesive, because people tend to be less accepting of others who have different beliefs, values, and traditions. Diversity can also impede communication when members use different language, jargon, measures, or criteria. On the positive side, having members with different perspectives, experiences, and knowledge can result in more creative solutions to problems. The importance of diversity for group performance varies somewhat for different types of groups and different situations (Horwitz & Horwitz, 2007). It is easier to convert diversity into cooperative problem solving when members are highly interdependent for attainment of important shared objectives, but making it happen is a major leadership challenge. A leader with authority to select members can try to select members who are diverse in terms of their background and relevant knowledge.

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Group Process Dichotomies Some scholars have proposed a broad two-factor classification of group processes that can affect the importance of the performance determinants and the relevance of different leadership functions (Bales, 1950; Katz & Kahn, 1978; Marks, Mathieu, & Zaccaro, 2001). The two dichotomies described in this section can be used together to help understand effective leadership in a group or team.

One distinction is between transition phase and performance phase of group activities. The transition phase involves determining who will be members of the group and making initial decisions about performance strategies, work assignments, and member roles in the group. If the mission, objectives, and formal leadership roles for the group are not already determined by the parent organization, then these decisions must be made as well. The transition phase is very important in a newly formed group, or when an existing group is given responsibility for a new type of project. The performance phase involves implementing and executing performance strategies, maintaining member commitment and cooperation, monitoring and assessing performance, and resolving any problems in the work. Groups typically alternate between the two phases, and the phases can overlap when unexpected problems require revision of earlier plans and decisions.

Another distinction is between internal processes versus external processes. The internal processes involve relationships among the group members and decisions about work procedures and member roles. The external processes involve interactions and relationships with the larger organization and outsiders such as clients and suppliers. Both types of processes occur during the transition and performance phases. Leadership may be provided by an elected or appointed leader, by individual members, and by an external leader in the organization with authority over group tasks, procedures, and resources.

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Functional Work Teams In a functional operating team, the members are likely to have jobs that are somewhat specialized but still part of the same basic function (e.g., equipment operating crew, maintenance crew, combat squad, submarine crew, SWAT team). The teams typically continue operating for a long duration of time, and the membership is relatively stable. There is usually an appointed leader who has considerable authority for internal operations and managing external relationships with other parts of the organization. Most leadership responsibilities are carried out by this formal leader, but other group members (such as an assistant leader) may perform specific leadership functions.

Effective leadership in functional work teams may require many specific types of leadership behavior. Examples of specific behaviors that can be used to influence each type of performance determinant are listed in Table 10-3 . The optimal pattern of behavior is not the same for each type of functional team. The appropriate pattern of behavior will depend on the situation and the relative importance of the performance determinants at that time.

Many of the required leader behaviors in a functional work team are similar to the task-oriented and relations-oriented behaviors described in Chapter 3 . If team members are not highly motivated and performance is less than it should be, then the leader may need to inspire and challenge members to increase their commitment to team objectives. If major changes are being implemented by the organization, then some change-oriented behaviors (see Chapter 4 ) may be needed. How much external behavior (e.g., representing, lobbying) is needed will vary depending on coordination requirements with other parts of the organization, variation in the demand

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Table 10-3 Leader Behaviors Influencing Performance Determinants for Teams Leadership Behavior Performance Determinant

Visioning, expressing confidence,

celebrating progress

Task commitment, collective efficacy

Recruiting and selecting competent

team members Member skills, collective efficacy

Coaching, training, and clarifying

role expectations and priorities

Member skills and role clarity, individual

and collective efficacy

Planning and organizing team

activities and projects

Efficiency and internal coordination,

collective efficacy

Facilitating collective learning by the team Adaptation to change, performance quality (e.g., strategies, collective efficacy)

Team building and constructive resolution of conflict

Mutual trust and cooperation, member identification with the team

Networking, monitoring/scanning of the external environment

Adaptation to change, external coordination, quality of performance strategies

Representing, promoting, lobbying, negotiating Resources and political support, external coordination

for the group’s products or services, and the adequacy of resources already provided by the organization. To cope with disruptions and immediate crises, some problem-solving and crisis management behaviors may be necessary (see ).

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Cross-functional Teams Cross-functional teams are being used increasingly in organizations to improve coordination of interdependent activities among specialized subunits. The team usually includes representatives from each of the functional subunits involved in a project, and it may include representatives from outside organizations such as suppliers, clients, and joint venture partners. The team is given responsibility for planning and conducting a complex activity that requires considerable coordination, cooperation, and joint problem solving among the parties (Ford & Randolph, 1992). Examples of these activities include developing a new product and bringing it into production, implementing a new information system, identifying ways to improve product quality, planning an ad campaign for the client of an advertising agency, carrying out a consulting project, developing a new health care program in a hospital, and developing a new MBA program in a university.

Separate cross-functional teams may be formed in an organization for different activities, projects, or clients. Some cross-functional teams may be permanent additions to the formal structure of the organization, but most of the teams are temporary and only exist until they complete their task or mission. The membership may be stable over the life of the team, or it may change as some functions become more important and others decline in importance (e.g., product development teams). The members may work for the team either on a part-time or full-time basis. In many cross-functional teams, the members are also in a functional subunit of the organization, and in some cases they are members of more than one cross-functional team.

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Benefits and Limitations of Cross-functional Teams Cross-functional teams offer many potential benefits to an organization (Ford & Randolph, 1992; Manz & Sims, 1993). The teams allow flexible, efficient deployment of personnel and resources to solve problems as they are discovered. Functional expertise is preserved because team members maintain close contact with their respective functional areas. Coordination is improved and many problems are avoided when people from different functions come together to work on a project at the same time, rather than working on it sequentially. The diversity of member backgrounds fosters communication with external sources of ideas and information, and it increases creativity in the generation of ideas and problem solutions (Keller, 2001). Working on a cross-functional team helps members learn to view a problem or challenge from different perspectives, rather than from only a narrow functional viewpoint. Members can learn new skills that will be carried back to their functional jobs and to subsequent teams.

Many organizations have reported great success with cross-functional teams. For example, a cross- functional team at Chrysler developed innovative new subcompact (the Neon) in a record time of only 42 months and at a fraction of the cost of developing new models at other car companies (Woodruff, 1993). At Hallmark Cards, the use of teams drastically reduced the time needed to bring new holiday and greeting cards to market from more than three years to less than one year, while also improving quality and responsiveness to changing customer preferences (George & Jones, 1996). However, cross- functional teams are not always successful, and effective leadership is required to meet the challenges inherent in the use of these teams.

The same conditions that create potential advantages for a cross-functional team also create difficulties (Denison, Hart, & Kahn, 1996; Ford & Randolph, 1992). Members of cross- functional teams usually have conflicting loyalties to the team and their home department. Members may be more concerned about protecting their functional turf than about accomplishing team objectives. Decisions can become difficult and time consuming if members need to get approval from their functional superiors before agreeing to a major change. The team usually has tight deadlines to meet for completing its work, which puts additional pressure on the leader to resolve disagreements and maintain steady progress.

Meetings are time consuming, and it can be difficult to get sufficient participation from team members who also have responsibilities in a functional department or other cross-functional teams. The functional

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diversity of the members increases communication barriers, because each function usually has its own jargon and ways of thinking about things (Cronin & Weingart, 2007). The functional subunits represented by team members often have different objectives, different priorities, and a different time orientation. These differences can create conflicts, as shown in the following example from a large petrochemicals company (Stern, 1993).

A team was formed to develop a better plastic resin. Members from the research department wanted to spend several months developing a new resin. Members from the production and marketing departments wanted to alter the existing product and quickly get it into production. The project was stalled for a long time because the different factions could not agree about a strategy.

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Leadership in Cross-functional Teams Most cross-functional teams have a formal leader who is selected by higher management, because a strong leader is needed to deal with the difficult challenges facing the teams. To gain commitment and resolve disagreements, the designated leader needs substantial position power and good interpersonal skills. Higher management should appoint a qualified leader and provide a clear mission, necessary resources, and political support for the implementation of ideas developed by the team.

Despite the extensive use of cross-functional project teams during the past 20 years, research on the skills required for effective leadership in these teams is still limited. However, the research suggests that team leaders need technical expertise, cognitive skills, interpersonal and political skills, and administrative skills relevant for project management (Ford & Randolph, 1992; Mumford, Hunter, Eubanks, Bedell, & Murphy, 2007; Mumford, Scott, Gaddis, & Strange, 2002). Table 10-4 explains how each type of skill is relevant for leadership in cross-functional project teams.

Creativity is an important requirement for the success of most cross-functional project teams. In their review of research on leading creative teams, Mumford et al. (2002) found three themes that described essential processes: (1) idea generation, (2) idea structuring, and (3) idea promotion. These themes indicate specific roles or types of leadership behavior that are relevant for each process. With regard to idea generation, it is essential for the leader to stimulate and facilitate creativity by members. With regard to idea structuring, it is important for the leader to provide clear objectives for the project and explain how it is relevant for the organization, but also

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Table 10-4 Skills Required for Leading Cross-functional Project Teams Technical expertise: The leader must be able to communicate about technical matters with team members from diverse functional backgrounds.

Project management skills: The leader must be able to plan and organize the project activities, select qualified members of the team, and handle budgeting and financial responsibilities.

Interpersonal skills: The leader must be able to understand the needs and values of team members, to influence them, resolve conflicts, and build cohesiveness.

Cognitive skills: The leader must be able to solve complex problems that require creativity and systems thinking, and must understand how the different functions are relevant to the success of the project.

Political skills: The leader must be able to develop coalitions and gain resources, assistance, and approvals from top management and other relevant parties.

to allow ample autonomy with regard to how the project objectives will be attained. With regard to idea promotion, necessary resources and support for the project must be obtained from the parent organization.

From interviews and observations of teams, Barry (1991) identified four leadership roles that appear to be essential for teams that solve problems, manage projects, or develop policies for an organization. The roles include (1) envisioning, (2) organizing, (3) social integrating, and (4) external spanning. Envisioning provides a shared objective, organizing helps the team decide how to attain it, social integrating helps to maintain internal cohesiveness, and external spanning helps to keep group decisions compatible with the needs of stakeholders outside the team. The four roles also provide a parsimonious way to describe the specific leadership behaviors used in cross-functional groups to build task commitment, develop effective performance strategies, ensure member trust and cooperation, obtain necessary resources, and maintain external coordination. Table 10-5 shows a modified version of the four-role taxonomy that incorporates other findings in team leadership.

The relative importance of the different leadership roles varies somewhat depending on the stage of group development. For example, envisioning is especially important when the group is forming, whereas organizing is more important after the group has agreed on an objective. Even when the capacity to provide each type of leadership is present, the team will not be successful unless the leader and members understand that different patterns of leadership are needed at different times. Research on

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cross-functional teams indicates that the leader must be flexible and adaptive as conditions change (e.g., Lewis, Welsh, Dehler, & Green, 2002).

The difficulties and obstacles facing many cross-functional teams are so great that the formal leader may be unable to carry out all of the relevant leadership roles alone. The different lines of research on leadership in cross-functional teams all indicate that success requires the efforts of multiple leaders (Barry, 1991; Cohen & Bailey, 1997; Mumford et al., 2002). Some of the internal leadership responsibilities may be shared at times with individual members of the team who have special expertise about a particular aspect of the project. However, the teams should not be self-managed. Research on the use cross-functional project teams without a strong, designated leader find that they are less likely to be successful, because too much time is consumed by process problems and unresolved conflicts (Cohen & Bailey, 1997).

Table 10-5 Leadership Behaviors Needed in Cross-functional Teams Envisioning

• Articulating strategic objectives or a vision that inspires commitment by team members. • Helping the team understand and improve their assumptions and mental models regarding the relationships

among task variables. • Suggesting creative ideas and encouraging the team to consider innovative performance strategies.

Organizing

• Planning and scheduling team activities to achieve coordination and meet project deadlines. • Helping the team establish standards and methods for assessing progress and performance. • Arranging and conducting meetings to solve problems and make decisions in a systematic way.

Social Integrating

• Encouraging mutual trust, acceptance, and cooperation among team members. • Facilitating open communication, equal participation, and tolerance of dissenting views. • Mediating conflicts among members and helping them find integrative solutions.

External Spanning

• Monitoring the external environment of the team to identify client needs, emerging problems, and political processes that will affect the team.

• Promoting a favorable image of the team among outsiders. • Influencing people outside the team to provide adequate resources, approvals, assistance, and cooperation.

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Self-managed Work Teams In self-managed work teams (sometimes called semi-autonomous work groups), much of the responsibility and authority usually vested in a manager’s position is turned over to the team members (Cohen, 1991; Katzenbach & Smith, 1993; Orsburn, Moran, Musselwhite, & Zenger, 1990; Wellins, Byham, & Wilson, 1991). Most self-managed work teams are responsible for producing a distinct product or service. Any type of team can be “self-managed,” but this form of team governance is typically used for teams that perform the same type of operational task repeatedly and have a relatively stable membership over time. Unlike cross-functional project teams, the members of self-managed teams typically have similar functional backgrounds (e.g., maintenance technicians, production operators). The members often take turns performing the various tasks for which the team is responsible. When members learn to perform multiple tasks, it increases team flexibility, makes the work more interesting, and provides an opportunity to learn new skills.

Self-managed teams are used most often for manufacturing work or process production, but they are finding increasing application to service work. Examples of companies that have used self-managed teams include AT&T, Colgate-Palmolive Company, Cummins Engine Company, Digital Equipment Corporation, General Electric, General Foods, Goodyear Tire and Rubber, Motorola, Procter and Gamble, TRW, Volvo, Xerox, and the Saturn division of General Motors.

The parent organization usually determines the mission, scope of operations, and the budget for self- managed teams. The amount of authority for other types of decisions varies greatly from one organization to another. Each team is usually given authority and responsibility for operating decisions such as setting performance goals and quality standards, assigning work, determining work schedules, determining work procedures, making purchases of necessary supplies and materials, dealing with customers and suppliers, evaluating team member performance, and handling performance problems of individual members. The teams are usually allowed to make small expenditures for supplies and equipment without prior approval, but in most organizations any recommendations for large purchases must be approved by management. Sometimes self-managed teams are also given the primary responsibility for personnel decisions such as selecting, hiring, and firing team members, and determining pay rates (within specified limits).

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Benefits and Limitations of Self-managed Teams Self-managed work teams offer a number of potential benefits, including stronger commitment of team members to the work, more effective management of work-related problems, improved efficiency, more job satisfaction, less turnover, and less absenteeism. Having team members cross-trained to do different jobs makes the work more interesting for members and increases the flexibility of the team in dealing with personnel shortages resulting from illness or turnover. Their extensive knowledge of work processes helps team members solve problems and suggest improvements. Finally, the changeover to self- managed teams typically reduces the number of managers and staff specialists in an organization, which lowers costs.

How many of these potential benefits are realized depends greatly on how the teams are implemented in an organization. One determinant is the amount of autonomy provided to the team, and member’s feelings of collective empowerment (Kirkman & Rosen, 1999; Tesluk & Matthieu, 1999). Giving authority to a self-managed team rather than to an individual leader does not necessarily result in collective feelings of empowerment. The team may use the same type of social pressure on members to conform to strict group norms and established procedures (Barker, 1993; Sinclair, 1992).

Reviews of the literature on self-managed teams (Cohen & Bailey, 1997; Goodman, Devadas, & Hughson, 1988; Kirkman & Rosen, 1999; Pearce & Ravlin, 1987) suggest that this form of employee empowerment can improve job satisfaction and team performance. However, much of the evidence is based on weak research methods or anecdotal reports published in business periodicals. Only a small number of experimental or quasi-experimental field studies have been conducted to evaluate self- managed teams (e.g., Banker, Field, Schroeder, & Sinha, 1996; Cohen & Ledford, 1994; Cordery, Mueller, & Smith, 1991; Pasmore, 1978; Pearson, 1992; Wall, Kemp, Jackson, & Klegg, 1986). These studies found some favorable outcomes for self-managed teams, but the results were not consistent from study to study and did not substantiate the large performance improvements claimed in some anecdotal reports.

Self-managed teams are difficult to implement, and they can be a dismal failure when used in inappropriate situations or without competent leadership and support (Hackman, 1986; Lawler, 1986). If interpersonal conflicts cannot be resolved in a constructive way that will ensure a high level of

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interpersonal trust and cooperation, then the team may restructure itself with more independent roles, thereby reducing the potential benefits and performance gains (Langfred, 2007). The research on self- managed teams suggests several conditions under which the potential advantages are likely to be realized, and they are listed in Table 10-6 (Carson, Tesluk, & Marrone, 2007; Cohen & Bailey, 1997; Goodman, Devadas, & Hughson, 1988; Hackman, 1986; Kirkman & Rosen, 1999; Mathieu, Gilson, & Ruddy, 2006; Pearce & Ravlin, 1987; Stewart, Courtright, & Manz, 2009; Sundstrom, DeMeuse, & Futrell, 1990).

Table 10-6 Facilitating Conditions for Self-Managed Teams • Clearly defined, shared objectives • Complex and meaningful task • Small size and stable membership • Members can determine work processes • Members have relevant skills • Member access to relevant information • Appropriate recognition and rewards • Strong support by top management • Competent external leader

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Leadership in Self-managed Teams When describing leadership in self-managed teams, it is helpful to differentiate between internal and external leadership roles. The internal leadership role involves management responsibilities assigned to the team and shared by group members. It is typical for self-managed teams to have an internal team leader who is elected by the members, and the position may be rotated among different members on a regular basis (e.g., quarterly or annually). Whether elected or appointed, the team leader does not simply replace the former first-line manager. In self-managed teams, most important responsibilities are usually shared by group members, not concentrated in the team leader. The primary responsibility of the internal leader is to coordinate and facilitate the process of making and implementing team decisions (e.g., conduct meetings, prepare work schedules and administrative paperwork).

Internal leadership in self-managed teams can take other forms besides rotation of the team leader position among members, and the amount of shared leadership and what aspects are shared can vary significantly (Carson et al., 2007). One form of shared leadership occurs when members meet to discuss important matters and make a group decision. A member with relevant expertise may assume responsibility for providing coordination and direction on specific team activities. Routine administrative tasks may be assigned to individual members, or someone with a strong interest in a task may take the initiative to do it without being asked. Difficult supervisory functions such as enforcing group norms may be performed collectively, as in the following example described by Barker (1993).

A small manufacturing company changed from traditionally managed work groups to self-managed teams. The team members collectively formulated standards of appropriate behavior. The new standards were more demanding than the earlier work rules, and compared to the supervisors of the traditionally managed work groups, the team was less tolerant of unacceptable behavior. Members first confronted an offender with a reminder of the standards or a warning to improve, then they used their coercive power to dismiss anyone who was not willing to do what was expected.

The role of an external leader involves managerial responsibilities not delegated to the team. The external leaders may be middle managers, special facilitators, or some of the previous first-line supervisors. Each external leader usually works with several teams. One leadership role that is especially important when the team is formed is to serve as a coach, facilitator, and consultant to the

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team. Considerable coaching and encouragement are usually necessary to get a new team off to a successful start. The type of coaching needed to facilitate shared leadership is different from providing specific advice about better procedures for doing the work. Leadership coaching includes helping members learn how to plan and organize the work, make group decisions, resolve conflicts, and cooperate effectively as a team. Most of these skills are difficult for members to learn, and it may take several months for the team to become proficient in managing its own task and interpersonal processes. During this learning period, an important function of the external leader is to build the self-confidence of team members. As the group evolves, members can gradually assume more responsibility for coaching new members and improving their own working relationships.

Another important role is to obtain necessary information, resources, and political support from the organization. Because external leaders serve as a linking pin between the team and organization, it is essential to build and maintain cooperative relationships and an effective exchange of information. The external leader must be able to influence team members to think and behave in ways that increase team effectiveness, and to influence other people in the organization to do what is necessary to facilitate team effectiveness. Unlike leaders of traditional functional teams, external leaders of self-managed teams are less likely to use their legitimate power in directive ways to influence the team; instead, they are more likely to ask questions and use influence based on their expert and referent power (Druskat & Wheeler, 2003).

A competent external leader is important for the success of self-managed teams, not only in the transition phase but also in the performance phase (Cohen, Chang, & Ledford, 1997; Gibson & Vermeulen, 2003; Morgeson, 2005; Morgeson & DeRue, 2006). As the team continues to develop, the external leader should communicate clear expectations about new responsibilities of members for regulating their own behavior. To improve external coordination in a dynamic environment, the external leader should clearly communicate objectives and changing priorities, facilitate collective learning, and continue to help the team obtain necessary resources and political support from the organization. Finally, it is often necessary for the external leader to assist the team in dealing with unusual, disruptive events, and the leader can help the team to understand the problem and coach members in how to respond effectively.

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Virtual Teams In virtual teams, the members are geographically separated and they seldom if ever meet face-to-face (Bell & Kozlowski, 2002). Most of the communication among members relies on computer and telecommunications technology (e.g., e-mail, videoconferencing, groupware, cellular phones). There has been a rapid increase in the use of virtual teams in organizations, and some writers have predicted that they will revolutionize the workplace of the future (Townsend, DeMarie, & Hendrickson, 1998). There are several reasons for increased use of virtual teams, including the rapid pace of globalization, increased use of joint ventures, employee desire for more flexibility in work arrangements (e.g., telecommuting, independent contractors), growing emphasis on service and knowledge management activities, and need for more flexibility and innovation in product development and delivery of customized services.

Any type of team can be virtual, but the most common form is a cross-functional team. A virtual team may be either a temporary arrangement to carry out a specific task, or a more durable arrangement to carry out ongoing responsibilities such as solving technical problems, planning recurring events, coordinating activities among dispersed units of an organization, and maintaining external coordination with suppliers and clients.

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Benefits and Limitations of Virtual Teams Virtual teams can provide several potential benefits compared to a co-located team. With virtual teams it is possible to involve the most qualified persons who are available to work on a project or make a decision, regardless of where they are located. For example, in a two-year project to develop a new type of refrigerator, Whirlpool used a virtual team with experts from the United States, Italy, and Brazil (Geber, 1995). The membership of virtual teams is often fluid, because the technology makes it easy for people to participate in different ways only when they are needed. As compared to teams with members who work together in the same location (“co-located teams”), a virtual team is more likely to have members from different cultures, times zones, and organizations.

Having a diverse, fluid membership creates additional problems and unique leadership challenges that may prevent the team from realizing the potential benefits. The lack of frequent face-to-face contact makes it more difficult to monitor the performance of members, to influence members, and to develop mutual trust and collective identification. It is difficult to gain commitment from diverse members with responsibilities in their local work unit that may be more important to them. Coordination problems may be more difficult to resolve in a virtual team than in a co-located team, especially when members have highly interdependent roles and the environment is dynamic and unpredictable. The leadership challenges are increased when members represent different organizations and are located in different time zones and cultures.

In the past decade there has been an increase in research on the differences between co-located and geographically dispersed teams (see Bell & Kozlowski, 2002; Bordia, 1997; Carte, Chidambaram, & Becker, 2006; Duarte & Snyder, 1999; Martins, Gilson, & Maynard, 2004; Kirkman, Rosen, Tesluk, & Gibson, 2004; Mesmer-Magnus, DeChurch, Jimenez-Rodriguez, Wildman, & Schuffler, In Press; Purvanova & Bono, 2009). It is likely that the same leadership roles are relevant for both types of teams, but the relative importance of these roles and how they are enacted may differ for virtual teams. More research is needed to clarify these issues.

Finally, the rapid pace of development in communication technology will have important implications for virtual teams in the near future. For example, holographic projection technology could be used to make it appear that team members are sitting around the same conference table, even though they are actually

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in different parts of the world. New developments in artificial intelligence may make it possible for some leadership functions to be shifted from humans to robots. As changes occur in the way virtuality is experienced by a team, earlier research findings will need to be verified and new research methods may be needed.

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Guidelines for Leading Teams A variety of different ways have been identified for leaders to improve member cohesiveness, cooperation, team identification, collective efficacy, and collective learning. The following guidelines based on research, theory, and practitioner insights describe team-building procedures that can be used alone or in various combinations when relevant for the situation (see also Table 10-7 ).

• Emphasize common interests and values. Collective identification with a group is stronger when the members agree about objectives, values, priorities, strategies, and the need for cooperation. The leader should emphasize mutual interests, identify shared objectives, and explain why cooperation is necessary to attain them. An Table 10-7 Guidelines for Leading Teams ◾ Emphasize common interests and values. ◾ Use ceremonies, rituals, and symbols to develop collective identification. ◾ Encourage and facilitate social interaction. ◾ Tell people about group activities and achievements. ◾ Conduct process analysis sessions. ◾ Increase incentives for mutual cooperation. ◾ Hold practice sessions under realistic conditions. ◾ Use after-activity reviews to facilitate collective learning by the team.

example of an appeal to shared values and objectives is provided by the following critical incident from the Korean War (Yukl, 1989, p. 328).

The commanding officer of a squadron (a lieutenant colonel) learned that interracial trouble had arisen among airmen in his squadron, and he was determined to stop it before it got out of hand. He called together the officers and airmen in his outfit and gave them an inspiring speech about democracy and discrimination. He pointed out that they were over there to preserve democracy and democratic principles, and discrimination among themselves was no way to attain this purpose. He put the challenge directly to the men and had the two racial groups appoint representatives that could hold meetings to iron out any difficulties that might arise in the future. Not only did this help defuse the conflict, but working conditions and squadron morale were improved also.

• Use ceremonies, rituals, and symbols to develop collective identification.

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Ceremonies and rituals can be used to increase identification with a group and make membership appear special. Initiation rituals are used to induct new members into a group, and retirement rituals are used to celebrate the departure of old members. Ceremonies are used to celebrate special achievements or mark the anniversary of special events in the history of the group. Rituals and ceremonies are most effective when they emphasize the group’s values and traditions. Symbols of group identity such as a team name, slogan, logo, insignia, or emblem may be displayed on flags, banners, clothing, or jewelry. Even a particular type or color of clothing may indicate group membership, as in the case of many urban gangs. Symbols can be effective for helping to create a separate identity for a team. Group identification is strengthened when members agree to wear or display the symbols of membership.

• Encourage and facilitate social interaction. Development of a cohesive group is more likely if the members get to know each other on a personal basis and find it satisfying to interact socially. One way to facilitate pleasant social interaction is to hold periodic social activities such as dinners, lunches, and parties. Various types of outings can be used to facilitate social interaction (e.g., going to a sports event or concert together, or on a camping or rafting trip). When group members work in the same facility, social interaction can be promoted by designating a room for the group to use for meetings and coffee breaks. The room can be decorated with symbols of the group’s accomplishments, statements of its values, and charts showing progress in accomplishing group objectives.

• Tell people about group activities and achievements. People tend to feel alienated and unappreciated when they receive little information about the plans, activities, and achievements of their team or department. It is important to keep members informed about these things and to explain how their work contributes to the success of the mission. An example is provided by Admiral Elmo Zumwalt’s description of an early command assignment in which he attempted to keep every person on the ship informed about the reason for each tactical exercise and maneuver.

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We made frequent announcements over the loudspeaker about the specific event that was going on. At the beginning and the end of each day, I discussed with the officers who, in turn, discussed with their men what was about to happen and what had just happened, what the competition was doing and what we should do to meet it. We published written notes on the plan of the day that would give the crew some of the color or human interest of what the ship was doing. I had bull sessions in the chief petty officers’ quarters, where I often stopped for a cup of coffee. More important than any of the details, of course, was the basic effort to communicate a sense of excitement, fun and zest in all that we were doing. (Zumwalt, 1976, p. 186)

Within 18 months of initiating these practices, his ship moved from last to first place in the squadron with regard to efficiency ratings.

• Conduct process analysis sessions. Process analysis sessions involve frank and open discussion of interpersonal relationships and group processes in an effort to improve them. One approach is to ask each member to suggest ways to make the group more effective. These suggestions should focus on how members communicate, work together, make decisions, and resolve disagreements rather than on the technical aspects of the work. A similar approach is to ask each member to describe how other members could make his or her role in the group easier. The discussion should result in a list of concrete suggestions for improving working relationships. Follow-up meetings can be used to chart progress in implementing the suggestions. It is usually better to have a trained facilitator conduct the process analysis session instead of the team leader. Discussing interpersonal relationships is more difficult than discussing work procedures, and it takes considerable skill to conduct this type of session. A team leader without training in process consultation may make team relationships worse rather than better. An outside facilitator is likely to be more objective and impartial, which is especially important if the leader is contributing to the difficulties the group has in working together.

• Increase incentives for mutual cooperation. Incentives based on individual performance encourage team members to compete with each other, whereas incentives based on group performance encourage cooperation. One way to increase cohesiveness and team identification is to emphasize formal incentives such as a bonus based on improvements in team performance. Another way is to use spontaneous, informal rewards to emphasize the importance of service to the team. For example, give the members extra days off after the team completes a difficult project, especially one that involved working overtime or on

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weekends. Hold a special celebration party for team members and their families after the team achieves an important objective.

• Hold practice sessions under realistic conditions. Team performance can be improved by holding frequent practice sessions, and they are very useful for enhancing the confidence of members that they can perform difficult tasks Table 10-8 Guidelines for Leading an After-activity Review Session

1. Near the beginning make a self-critique that acknowledges shortcomings. 2. Encourage feedback from others and model non-defensive acceptance of it. 3. Ask members to identify effective and ineffective aspects of team performance. 4. Encourage members to examine how group processes affected team performance. 5. Keep the discussion focused on behaviors rather than on individuals. 6. If necessary, provide your own assessment of team performance. 7. Recognize improvements in team performance. 8. Ask members for suggestions on how to improve team performance. 9. Propose improvements not already included in the team’s suggestions.

Based on Tannenbaum et al. (1998)

successfully. Unless teams regularly practice how to respond to unusual events such as crises and emergencies, performance is likely to be poor when such events eventually occur. Practice sessions are more beneficial when they are held under conditions that are as realistic as possible. When the task involves a team of people working together, it is best to have them practice complex procedures together. For example, airplane crews practice dealing with emergencies due to equipment failure. Hospital employees conduct simulations to practice dealing with large numbers of casualties from a natural disaster.

• Use after-activity reviews to facilitate collective learning by the team. Collective learning from experience is more likely when a systematic analysis is made after an important activity is finished to discover the reasons for success or failure. The after-activity review (also called an “after-action review,” an “after-event review,” or a “postmortem”) is a procedure for collectively analyzing the processes and resulting outcomes of a team activity (Ellis & Davidi, 2005; Ellis, Mendel, & Nir, 2006; Tannenbaum, Smith-Jentsch, & Behson, 1998). This process is especially useful when teams perform the same type of activity repeatedly. The objective is to identify what was done well and what can be improved the next time a similar activity is conducted. The members should review their initial plans and objectives for the activity, the procedures used to

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carry out the activity, problems or obstacles encountered in doing the activity, key decisions that were made, and the outcomes. Then the group determines how to use what was learned to improve future performance. For long projects or training simulations, it is also useful to conduct progress review sessions at convenient intermediate points. The use of after-activity reviews for evaluating activities and planning improvements is pervasive now in the U.S. Army, and it is slowly gaining acceptance in civilian organizations as well (Baird, Holland, & Deacon, 1999; Ellis & Davidi, 2005). Procedures for leading the reviews are listed in Table 10-8 .

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Leading Decision Groups Groups are used frequently to solve problems and make decisions in organizations. As noted in Chapter 5 , using a group to make a decision has several potential advantages over decisions made by an individual leader. Groups have more relevant knowledge and ideas that can be pooled to improve decision quality, and active participation will increase member understanding of decisions and member commitment to implement them. On the negative side, group decisions usually take longer, the members may be unable to reach agreement if they have incompatible objectives, and process problems may undermine the quality of decisions.

The process by which a group arrives at a decision is a major determinant of decision quality. Many things can prevent a group from effectively utilizing the information and achieving its full potential. The quality of a group decision depends on the contribution of information and ideas by group members, the clarity of communication, the accuracy of prediction and judgments, the extent to which the discussion is focused on the problem, and the manner in which disagreement is resolved. Common process problems that reduce decision quality include member inhibition, groupthink, false consensus, hasty decisions, polarization, and lack of action planning for implementation.

Appropriate leadership can facilitate effective decision making by a group and help to avoid process problems (Basadur, 2004). The leadership role can be shared to some extent, but members of decision groups often prefer to have one designated discussion leader who has primary responsibility for conducting the meeting (Berkowitz, 1953; Schlesinger, Jackson, & Butman, 1960). An effective leader ensures that the group uses a systematic decision process (“process control”), but does not dominate the discussion (“content control”). The job of conducting a meeting is a difficult one, because the group is likely to be ineffective if the leader is either too passive or too domineering. A considerable amount of skill is needed to achieve a delicate balance between these two extremes. The behaviors and procedures used to achieve this balance are discussed in the remaining sections of this chapter.

We saw in Chapter 3 that leadership behavior can be classified as task-oriented or relationship- oriented, and a similar distinction can be made for leadership behavior in group meetings. Of course, specific aspects of leadership behavior often involve both task and relationship concerns simultaneously, but the distinction helps to remind group leaders how important it is to balance task and relationship

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concerns in leading meetings. Several writers have proposed two-factor taxonomies of group leader behavior (Bales, 1950; Benne & Sheats, 1948; Bradford, 1976; Lord, 1977; Schein, 1969). Table 10-9 shows a simplified, composite taxonomy of task-oriented and group maintenance functions and their primary objectives.

Table 10-9 Major Types of Leadership Behavior in Decision Groups Task Function Specific Objective

1. Process structuring Guide and sequence discussion

2. Stimulating communication Increase information exchange

3. Clarifying communication Increase comprehension

4. Summarizing Check on understanding and assess progress

5. Consensus testing Check on agreement

Group Maintenance Specific Objective

1. Gatekeeping Increase and equalize participation

2. Harmonizing Reduce tension and hostility

3. Supporting Prevent withdrawal, reduce tension

4. Standard setting Regulate behavior

5. Process analyzing Discover and resolve process problems

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Task-oriented Functions Task-oriented behavior in a group meeting facilitates the systematic communication, evaluation, and analysis of information and ideas, and it aids problem solving and decision making. Some examples of task-oriented behavior include developing an agenda for the meeting, presenting a problem to the group, asking members for specific information or ideas, asking a member to explain an ambiguous statement, helping the group understand the relevance of ideas, explaining how different ideas are related, keeping the discussion on track, reviewing and summarizing what has been said or done, checking on the amount of agreement among members, suggesting procedures for making a decision, assigning responsibility for follow-up action, and recessing or ending a meeting.

It is not sufficient for a leader simply to carry out the behaviors; a sense of proper timing is also essential (Bradford, 1976). Any task-oriented behavior can be useless or even detrimental if it is premature or overdone. For example, summarizing too soon may discourage contribution of additional ideas on a subject. A discussion may be excessively prolonged if the leader keeps on stimulating communication instead of testing for a consensus. It is also important for the leader to have considerable skill in the use of each kind of task-oriented behavior. For example, an unskilled leader who tries to clarify a member’s statement may succeed only in creating more confusion. A leader who is unskilled in summarizing may make a summary that leaves out key points and fails to organize contributions in a meaningful way.

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Group Maintenance Functions Group maintenance behavior in a group meeting increases cohesiveness, improves interpersonal relations, aids resolution of conflict, and satisfies the personal needs of members for acceptance, respect, and involvement. Some examples of group maintenance behavior include encouraging participation by quiet members, preventing dominant members from monopolizing the discussion, smoothing over conflict, suggesting compromises, asking members to resolve differences in a constructive way, using humor to reduce tension, expressing appreciation for suggestions and ideas, suggesting norms and standards of behavior, reminding the group of norms agreed upon earlier, asking members for their perception of group processes, and pointing out process problems to the group.

Just as machines need periodic maintenance to keep them running smoothly, so also do human relationships in a group. As with machines, preventive maintenance should be carried out frequently rather than waiting to do corrective maintenance after a serious breakdown. Group maintenance should be an ongoing activity designed to build teamwork and prevent the development of chronic apathy, withdrawal, interpersonal conflict, and status struggles. If allowed to develop, these problems will disrupt the task-oriented activity in a group and reduce the effectiveness of the group.

Group maintenance behavior is needed in most meetings, but it is neglected by many leaders who are unaware of its importance. Standard setting and process analyzing are the aspects of behavior least likely to occur, perhaps because they require an explicit recognition of maintenance needs. As in the case of task-oriented behaviors, the group maintenance behaviors require skill and a sense of proper timing to be performed effectively.

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Who Should Perform the Leadership Functions Behavioral scientists generally agree that task-oriented behavior and group maintenance behavior are both essential for the effectiveness of decision groups, but they disagree about who should perform these functions and about their relative priority. The traditional view is that the formal leader should direct and control the activities of the group. According to this “leader-centered” view, the group leader should keep discussion focused on the task, discourage expression of feelings, retain control over the final decision (i.e., use consultation rather than group decision), and protect his or her authority in the group. According to Bradford (1976), this kind of group leadership produces some favorable results but at an unacceptable price. Meetings are orderly and decisions get made, but members become apathetic and resentful, which leads to a loss of potential contributions and a reduction in quality of decisions. Acceptance of decisions by group members may also be reduced if members feel manipulated and unable to influence the decisions significantly.

With “group-centered” leadership, the role of the leader is to serve as a consultant, advisor, teacher, and facilitator, rather than as a director or manager of the group. The group maintenance functions are considered to be as important as the task-oriented functions, because feelings and interactions profoundly affect the problem-solving and decision-making processes in a group. Responsibility for both kinds of functions is shared by group members, because no one person can be sensitive to all of the process problems and needs of the group. The leader should encourage expression of feelings as well as ideas, model appropriate leadership behaviors, and encourage members to learn to perform these behaviors themselves. According to Bradford, sharing responsibility for leadership functions will improve the quality of the decisions and make members more satisfied with the group.

Bradford recognized some difficulties in implementing group-centered leadership. He noted that this kind of leadership requires considerable interpersonal skill, maturity, and trust in both the leader and group members. Some leaders are afraid to risk sharing control with group members or dealing openly with emotional behavior. These leaders may also be concerned that the new approach will make them appear weak or incompetent. Some members may be unwilling to deal openly with emotions or may prefer to avoid assuming more responsibility for leadership functions in the group. Many decision groups are only temporary and do not meet over a long enough time to develop the necessary trust, skills, and member commitment. A committee may have unwilling members who prefer to meet as seldom as possible and

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to assume as little responsibility as possible for committee activities. The traditional approach is often reinforced by ritual and established procedures, which represent additional obstacles to the introduction of group-centered leadership. For example, some decision groups are legally required by their charter or bylaws to follow cumbersome procedural rules (e.g., Robert’s rules of order) that are more appropriate for large, formal groups. Despite these many obstacles, Bradford is optimistic about the prospects for successful implementation of group-centered leadership.

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Guidelines for Leading Meetings This section describes specific procedures that leaders can use to improve group effectiveness in solving problems and making decisions. The guidelines for leading meetings (see Table 10-10 ) are based on ideas proposed by various scholars over the years (e.g., Basadur, 2004; Janis & Mann, 1977; Jay, 1976; Maier, 1963; Mesmer-Magnus & DeChurch, 2009; Rowland & Parry, 2009; Tropman, 1996; Westaby, Probst, & Lee, 2010).

Table 10-10 Guidelines for Leading Decision Group Meetings • Inform people about necessary preparations for a meeting. • Share essential information with group members. • Describe the problem without implying the cause or solution. • Allow ample time for idea generation and evaluation. • Separate idea generation from idea evaluation. • Encourage and facilitate participation. • Encourage positive restatement and idea building. • Use systematic procedures for solution evaluation. • Encourage members to look for an integrative solution. • Encourage efforts to reach consensus when feasible. • Clarify responsibilities for implementation.

• Inform people about necessary preparations for a meeting. A problem-solving meeting will be more effective if people know how to prepare for it. To ensure that people plan to attend the meeting, they should be informed in advance about the time, place, and important subjects on the agenda. People who are expected to present briefings, provide technical information, or evaluate a proposal should be given clear guidance and ample time to prepare. Any reports or proposals to be studied in preparation for the meeting should be provided in advance with the agenda.

• Share essential information with group members. When the problem is presented, essential facts known to the leader should be reviewed briefly, including how long the problem has been evident, the nature of the problem symptoms, and what if anything has been done about it up to that time. The amount of information that should be presented depends on the nature of the problem and the group’s prior information. The information may be provided prior to the meeting, at the beginning of the meeting, or as the problem diagnosis is made. The leader should be careful to present facts with as little interpretation as possible. For example, if

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the problem is how to increase sales, it is better simply to review sales figures for each district than to make judgments such as “sales are terrible in the central district.”

• Describe the problem without implying the cause or solution. The problem should be stated objectively in a way that does not assign blame for it to some or all of the group members. Implying blame will make members defensive and reduce their willingness to help in solving a mutual problem. The problem statement should not suggest the reasons for the problem or possible solutions to it. This kind of statement would limit the consideration of different problem diagnoses by the group. Instead, the problem statement should encourage exploration of a variety of causes and a variety of possible solutions.

• Allow ample time for idea generation and evaluation. The leader should plan meetings so that enough time is available to diagnose the problem, develop alternative solutions, and explore the implications and consequences of each alternative. Even when a group has members who are not inhibited, a strong majority coalition may propose a favored decision and ram it through before the critics have an opportunity to explain their concerns and gather support. The pressure of time is another reason for hasty decisions, and they often occur when a meeting is about to end and members desire to resolve matters quickly to avoid another meeting. When an important decision is being considered but time is not sufficient to evaluate solutions, the leader should try to postpone the decision until another meeting. If an immediate decision is not necessary and it is obvious that more information is needed, the leader may want to adjourn the meeting and arrange for additional information to be obtained.

• Separate idea generation from idea evaluation. Research has found that idea generation is less inhibited when it is separated from idea evaluation (Maier, 1963). Procedures have been developed to reduce inhibition and facilitate idea generation in groups. With “brainstorming,” members are encouraged to suggest any idea about the problem that comes to mind, the ideas are written on a blackboard or flip chart, and no positive or negative evaluation of ideas is permitted (including scowls, groans, sighs, or gestures). The rationale is that inhibition would be reduced by deferring evaluation of ideas, domination would be reduced by making contributions brief and spontaneous, and creativity would be increased by mutual facilitation of ideas and a climate of acceptance for strange and novel ideas. Brainstorming improves idea generation in comparison with a regular interacting group, but some inhibition may still occur (White, Dittrich, & Lang, 1980).

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The “nominal group technique” was developed to correct the deficiencies of brainstorming (Delbecq, Van de Ven, & Gustafson, 1975). During a group meeting (or prior to it) the members are asked to write their ideas on a slip of paper without discussing them. When they are finished, the leader posts the ideas for everyone to see. An alternative that is especially useful for a virtual group is to post ideas on a common web site. Group members are invited to build on ideas already listed or add new ideas stimulated by seeing the list. Then the leader reviews the list with the group to see if there are any questions about the meaning of an idea or its relevance to the objective. In a recent improvement of this procedure (called “brain writing”), the evaluation of ideas is postponed until a later meeting, and participants are encouraged to continue thinking about the problem and the list of ideas (Paulus & Yang, 2000). The rationale for a follow-up meeting is that members do not have adequate time to reflect upon each other’s ideas when they are busy writing ideas of their own, and an “incubation” period is necessary to realize the potential for mutual stimulation of ideas.

• Encourage and facilitate participation. When some members loudly advocate a particular solution and other members remain silent or fail to take a position, the silent ones are usually assumed to be in agreement. In fact, silence may indicate dissent rather than agreement. The leader can use appropriate gatekeeping behavior to facilitate participation and encourage serious discussion of member concerns. Each member should be encouraged to contribute ideas and express concerns, and members should be discouraged from dominating the discussion or using social-pressure tactics (e.g., threats, derogatory comments) to intimidate people who disagree with them. When computer-based groupware is available, it can be used to facilitate anonymous interaction during the posting and evaluation of ideas. After members generate ideas independently, the composite list of ideas can be displayed on each member’s computer screen or smart phone. Then any member can add new ideas stimulated by seeing the list, request more information from the (anonymous) source of an idea, or suggest ways to improve an idea. Duplicate ideas can be combined if desired, and a rating procedure can be used to the most acceptable ideas.

• Encourage positive restatement and idea building. Two procedures that are especially useful to create a more supportive climate for idea generation are positive restatement and idea building. One of the most useful techniques for nurturing new ideas is to ask group members to restate another member’s idea and find something worthwhile about it before saying anything critical. In a related technique, any member who points out a

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deficiency or limitation of another’s idea is required to suggest a way to correct the deficiency or overcome the limitation. This approach also emphasizes careful listening and constructive, helpful behavior.

• Use systematic procedures for solution evaluation. Procedures have been developed to help decision groups evaluate and compare potential solutions. These procedures are especially useful when members appear to be divided into opposing factions (“polarization”), each with a different solution. With the two-column procedure, members mutually identify and post the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative (Maier, 1963). Members then discuss the advantages and disadvantages and try to agree on an overall ranking of alternatives. A similar but more detailed procedure is cost-benefit analysis. This procedure can be used when the consequences of each solution are fairly certain and it is possible to make reasonably accurate estimates of the benefits and costs in monetary terms. The analysis should be conducted in a systematic manner, and care should be taken to avoid biasing estimates of costs and benefits to support a preferred solution. After all the alternatives have been analyzed, the group selects the best one by using whatever economic criterion seems most appropriate (e.g., maximize net benefit, maximize return on investment).

• Encourage members to look for an integrative solution. When a group is sharply divided in support of competing alternatives, it is sometimes feasible to develop an integrative solution that involves the best features of the rival solutions. One way to begin this procedure is to examine both alternatives closely to identify what features they have in common as well as how they differ. This comparison develops a better understanding and appreciation of the opposing alternative, especially if all group members become actively involved in the discussion. The leader should encourage participation, keep the discussion analytical rather than critical, and post the results of the comparison to provide a visual summary of the similarities and differences. It is also useful to list for each faction the essential qualities of a solution and the relative priorities of different criteria or objectives. Even when it is not possible to develop a hybrid solution, the process may help the group identify an entirely new solution that is superior to the others.

• Encourage efforts to reach consensus when feasible. Voting is a common procedure for making a decision, but whenever feasible, the leader should encourage the group to try to reach a consensus rather than deciding on the basis of a simple majority. A consensus occurs when all members of the group agree that a particular alternative is

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acceptable, even though it is not necessarily the first choice of every member. A consensus decision usually generates more commitment than a majority decision, but more time is typically needed to make the decision, and a group consensus is not always possible. When the group has a large majority in support of one alternative, but a few dissenters still remain, the leader should carefully weigh the possible benefits of winning them over against the cost of additional discussion time. If adequate time has already been devoted to discussion of alternatives, it is seldom worthwhile to prolong the discussion merely to persuade one or two stubborn members. In this situation, the leader should take the initiative and declare that a group decision has been reached.

• Clarify responsibilities for implementation. Before the meeting ends, the leader should make some provisions for implementing the decision. Necessary action steps should be specified and responsibility for each action step assigned to individuals. Many good decisions made by groups are unsuccessful simply because nobody bothers to ensure that they are implemented. If a follow-up meeting is needed, the preparations required for that meeting should be determined and responsibilities assigned. Also, the date and time should be determined, if possible, when everyone is present. After the meeting, the leader should distribute a summary of what was discussed and decided, and what responsibilities were assigned to whom.

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Summary Organizations increasingly rely on teams to improve quality, efficiency, and adaptive change. Several types of teams are used in organizations, including functional work teams, cross-functional teams, self- managed teams, virtual teams, and executive teams (which are discussed in Chapter 11 ). The potential advantages of teams include more employee satisfaction and commitment, better quality of products and services, and greater efficiency and productivity. However, the benefits do not occur automatically, and successful implementation depends on the quality of leadership and some facilitating conditions.

Effective leadership in teams usually requires many specific types of leadership behavior. The appropriate pattern of behavior will depend on the type of team and the relative importance of the performance determinants. Some essential leadership processes in teams include building commitment for shared objectives, identifying effective performance strategies and organizing team activities, enhancing member skills and role clarity, building mutual trust and cooperation, identifying and procuring needed resources, maintaining confidence and optimism, and facilitating external coordination.

Leadership is provided in somewhat different ways in the different types of teams. Functional work teams and cross-functional teams usually have an appointed leader with strong position power. In a self- managed team, many of the leadership roles are carried out informally and shared among the members. However, even in teams with a formal leader, it is often beneficial for other members to share responsibility for some of the leadership roles. Virtual teams have members who work in different locations and interact primarily using communications technology. Any type of team can operate with some degree of virtuality.

Team-building activities are used to increase cohesiveness, group identification, and cooperation. Some examples include emphasizing common interests and values, using ceremonies and rituals, using symbols to develop group identification, facilitating social interaction among members, informing members about group activities and achievements, and conducting process analysis sessions.

A group decision is potentially superior to a decision made by a single individual such as the leader, but many things can prevent a group from realizing its potential. Leadership is a major determinant of group effectiveness, and in the context of group meetings it includes both task-oriented and group maintenance

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functions. The two types of leadership functions require skill and a sense of proper timing to be effective. The leadership role is difficult, because the decision process will be adversely affected if the leader is either too passive or too domineering. To improve problem solving and avoid common process problems, a leader should present the problem in an unbiased manner, encourage the group to consider alternative conceptions of the problem, separate idea generation from idea evaluation, and use systematic procedures for solution evaluation.

Research on leadership in teams has increased in recent years, but it continues to lag behind changes in the use of teams in organizations. The extent to which effective leadership is different in virtual teams has yet to be determined, and rapid advances in technology make it difficult to predict the future relevance of results from past research.

Review and Discussion Questions 1. What factors determine the performance of a team? 2. What leadership processes are important for cross-functional teams? 3. Why is leadership more difficult in cross-functional teams than in functional teams? 4. What leadership roles and processes are important for self-managed teams? 5. Under what conditions are self-managed work teams most likely to be successful? 6. What can be done to improve group cohesiveness and collective identification? 7. What are the major task-oriented and group maintenance functions in decision groups? 8. What can a leader do to improve decision-making processes in a group meeting?

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Key Terms after-activity reviews brainstorming cohesiveness collective efficacy collective identification consensus cross-functional teams decision support systems external coordination functional teams group maintenance behaviors nominal group technique performance strategies potency self-managed teams shared mental models task-oriented behaviors team building virtual teams

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Case Southwest Engineering Services Donna Burke was a systems engineer at Southwest Engineering Services for five years when she was invited to participate in a project to develop a new type of software for the company. The project director was Ron Morrison, who had a reputation as a software whiz and rising star in the company. Donna was not sure why she was invited to work on this project, but she was very excited about it. She understood that the work would be important, and she knew that a successful project would also provide a big boost for her career in the company.

Ron called a meeting the first day for the 12 people invited to be part of the project team. After introducing himself, Ron gave a short welcoming speech to the group. “All of you are here today because you have special skills that are essential for the success of this project. Each of you was recommended by your boss, and only the most qualified people in the company were invited to participate. As you know, the volume of business handled by Southwest Engineering has been growing steadily. The company needs a better type of decision support system for managing engineering projects in a way that will guarantee quality while keeping costs low. Southwest Engineering faces an increasingly competitive market, and this decision support system is essential for the company to remain profitable. Our objective is to develop a new and innovative system that is better than anything else currently available. It is an extremely challenging assignment, but I believe we can pull it off if we have total commitment by every member of the team. If you are going to be part of this team, the project must take priority over everything else in your life for the next nine months. We will be working long days and even many weekends. If anyone has reservations about making a total commitment, there is still time to withdraw from the team. Please let me know your decision by 9:00 a.m. tomorrow.” The next day, Donna and 10 other employees joined the team. The one person who declined to join had family health problems that would prevent him from working extra hours on the project.

As the team plunged into the project, the work was even more intense than Donna had expected. On weekdays it was common to order in food and work late into the evening. Working Saturday mornings was taken for granted, and the team would often go to lunch together after finishing work on Saturdays. Ron had an attitude of enthusiasm and optimism that was contagious, and before long even the most cynical and unemotional member of the team was caught up in the excitement. Despite the long hours, the work was exhilarating because everyone knew that they were part of something that would change the way things are done in the company.

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Ron provided a clear picture of the specifications necessary for the new system, and this picture was important for guiding the work of team members and keeping them focused on the same objective. However, Ron did not dictate how the work should be done. Team members were expected to use their expertise to determine how to do the work. Ron was available to provide guidance if asked, but he was careful not to impose himself when not needed. When someone was experiencing difficulties in doing a task, Ron was supportive and helpful. Nevertheless, it was clear that he would not tolerate less than a maximum effort.

Ron pushed relentlessly for continued progress in the work. The team met regularly to evaluate progress and determine how to deal with obstacles and problems. Every member of the team had an opportunity to influence important decisions about the design of the software system, and the actual influence for a particular issue depended on one’s expertise and quality of ideas rather than on status in the company or years of experience.

An important part of Ron’s job as project director was to make sure the team got the resources and assistance it needed from the company. Ron spent considerable time traveling to various company facilities to meet with key people whose support and cooperation were needed to design and implement the new system. Before leaving on these trips, Ron would ask a member of the team to carry out his internal leadership responsibilities. When it was her turn, Donna was at first apprehensive, but she found it to be an interesting and satisfying experience. As Ron debriefed her afterward, he encouraged her to consider a managerial position at Southwest Engineering in her career plans.

At one point during the fourth month, the team became discouraged over a series of setbacks involving some persistent technical problems. Ron called a meeting to give them a pep talk. He said to them, “I know you are discouraged about these setbacks, but it happens in any project that is breaking new ground. We have made tremendous progress, and I am really proud of what you have accomplished so far. I am confident we can overcome this latest obstacle and make the project a success. Let’s take the rest of the day off to give ourselves a little rest and meet again tomorrow to discuss some new ideas for integrating the system components.”

The following week the team figured out an innovative way to deal with the obstacle. They celebrated this breakthrough with a party at Ron’s house. The project was completed three months later, which was several weeks earlier than the original deadline. The project was a great success, and they felt

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tremendous pride in what they accomplished. A final celebration party was held before people dispersed back to their regular units or to new projects. Afterward, Donna and another team member reminisced about their experiences. Donna gave Ron much credit for being a fantastic coach and facilitator, and she hoped to have the opportunity to work with him again on another project. However, she also realized that their success was a team effort that could not have been accomplished without the significant contributions of all the team members and their willingness to cooperate and put the needs of the project above individual self-interests.

Questions 1. Describe the leadership behaviors Ron used and their influence on the attitudes and behavior

of the team members. 2. Compare this cross-functional project team to a self-managed operations team by identifying

similarities and differences in the leadership roles.

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