The Living Primates

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Exploring Biological Anthropology:
The Essentials, 3rd Edition

CRAIG STANFORD

JOHN S. ALLEN

SUSAN C. ANTÓN

As you work through this set of chapter slides, keep in mind the notations that are included from your instructor. Open, read carefully, download if necessary, and use in conjunction with your reading and video lesson study. All these components supplement each other. The wise student will keep this in mind.

Chapter 7
The Primates

Question: Why the interest in non-human primates?

The Answer:

a. Some are our closest kin & share a “recent” ancestry (e.g., 5/6 m.y.a. ape-like ancestor); we have much DNA in common.

b. When we study how they evolved, we see evolution in action and can draw conclusions as to us.

c. Primates are downright interesting, amazing creatures. [Get ready for your zoo project!]

The Primate Radiation

Metatheria

Prototheria

Eutheria

Mammals are divided into three groups:

Basic Groupings: Metatherians...marsupials; Prototherians... Egg but also suckles (figure that out!); Eutherians...placenta & uterus

The Primate Radiation (cont’d)

The extraordinary diversity of nonhuman primates
300 species of nonhuman primates are recognized
More than 400 taxa or varieties
Size and form vary greatly
Body shapes vary tremendously

This says it all.

The Primate Radiation (cont’d)

Strepsirhini and Haplorhini

Prosimian and Anthropoid

What Exactly is a Primate?: Primate Suborders

Infra or sub orders: Strepsirhines (prosimians, e.g., lemurs) and haplorhines (anthropoids such as monkeys, apes, humans).

What about Tarsiers? The Tarsiers (“awkward teenagers”) straddle both groups and might be intermediary, or so say some researchers.

The Primate Radiation (cont’d)

Anatomical Traits
Grasping hands/opposable thumbs and big toes
Flattened nails
Forward-facing eyes with stereoscopic vision
Generalized body plan
Generalized teeth
Petrosal bulla
Enclosed orbits

* Generalized, versatile body plan allows variety of travel modes...swinging, running, walking; vs. specialized body of horse or cheetah

* Quadrupeds: generally, move around on all fours...palm down for monkeys, knuckle walking for apes

* Grasping hand & opposable thumb

* Flat nails (like ours) vs, claws (like dog or cat)

* Forward facing eyes & stereoscopic vision. See “Arboreal” vs. “Visual predation” hypothesis

* Generalized dentition: sectorial variation (molars, premolars, canines, incisors); some N.W. Monkeys have two vs. three premolars

* Petrosal Bulla: tiny bone protects inner ear; considered to be a skeletal component found in all true primates; if seen in a fossil find, then you’ve got a “primate” fossil; this is not found in non-primates.

Enclosed Bony Eye Orbit: small opening for optic nerve; more of it in Haps vs Streps

The Primate Radiation (cont’d)

Life History Traits
Single offspring
Large brains
Encephalization
Neocortex
Extended ontogeny
Lifecycle
Sociality
Living in groups

* Single Offspring most common (Marmoset & are Tamarin exceptions)

* Relatively Large Brained: Neorcortex/cerebrum... encephalization (debate re. Homo floresiensis!).

* Extended Ontogeny: Duration of each phase of life; e.g., in utero, infancy, juvenile, young adult, etc.; small brain will grow.

The Primate Radiation (cont’d)

Behavioral Traits
Activity Patterns
Diurnal
Nocturnal
Crepuscular (active during dawn and dusk)

Sociality
Living in groups

Depending on the primate group, they will be either nocturnal (Tarsiers) or diurnal (monkeys, etc.). Social groups will be smaller among Tarsiers & many other prosimians that are nocturnal, while the whole range of ape types (diurnal) will live in large groups. Think about it.

A Guide to the Nonhuman Primates

The Strepsirhines
The Lemurs
Madagascar
Lemuridae
Cheirogalidae
Indriidae
Daubentoniidae
The Lorises
Tropical Africa and Asia
Galagos

This should be self-explanatory. Check the book to fill in any gaps in your understanding.

Check out which type of Prosimian this is. See figure 7.19 at p. 154 in textbook.

A Guide to the Nonhuman Primates (cont’d)

The Haplorhines
The Tarsiers
New World Monkeys
Old World Monkeys
The Hominoids

See [figure 7.10 for a world map of living non-human primates]

All haplorhines have the full suite of adaptations that we associate with the living primates. These include the following:

VISION over OLFACTION; FUSED LOWER JAW (vs. “cartlidge”)

BONEY ORBITAL CLOSURE more complete in Haps vs Streps

DIURNAL (with few exceptions) and HIGHLY SOCIAL

LARGE BRAINED with WELL DEVELOPED COGNITION

Ok, so which species of monkey is this? Also, is it a New or Old World monkey?

A Guide to the Nonhuman Primates (cont’d)

New World Monkeys
Infraorder Platyrrhini
Superfamily Ceboidea
Small body size
Three premolar teeth
Arboreality
Prehensile tails

The NEW WORLD MONKEYS (Ceboids) have a platyrrhine nose (nostrils separated by a “broad” nasal partition or septum and open facing forward or to the side; they are smaller and are strictly arboreal; have three premolars in each quadrant of the mouth; and some have a prehensile tail.

Within the New World monkeys there are two families: Callitrichidae (Marmosetes and Tamarins) and Cebidae.

A Guide to the Nonhuman Primates (cont’d)

Old World Monkeys
Infraorder Catarrhini
Superfamily Cercopithecoidea
Ischial callosites
Bilophodant molars
Estrus (in some)

Cercopithcines have catarrhine noses, meaning they have a separated, “narrow” nasal septum which opens downward; they have two premolars per quadrant; have well-developed thumbs, generally opposable, and there’s definite sexual dimorphism. As seen with chimps, there are Ischial callosities around the anal region.

While some OW monkeys are arboreal, none have the prehensile tail.

A Guide to the Nonhuman Primates (cont’d)

The Hominoids
Apes
Hylobatidae
Pongidae
Encephalization
Brachiation
Extended ontogeny
Social complexity

See p. 164 in this chapter on “Impending Extinction of the Great Apes?”

Hominoids includes the apes & humans:

The ape families include the HYLOBATIDAE (gibbons) & PONGIDAE (gorilla, chimp, bonobo, orangutan), and the hominids (humans & human family past & present). Of all of these, the CHIMPS/BONOBOS are closest to humans.

The happy family! So, which ape type is this?

A Guide to the Nonhuman Primates (cont’d)

Apes
Gibbons
14 species
Asia/ Indonesia
Orangutans
Indonesia
Gorillas
Africa
Chimpanzees
Africa
Bonobo/ Chimpanzee

* GIBBONS: These are the farthest flung (all over Southeast Asia) and are the smaller of the “lesser” apes. They exhibit virtually NO sexual DIMORPHISM, have short compact bodies with long arms; are BRACHIATORS and, thus, are arboreal. They live in small family groups & occupy a distinct territory, which they defend with loud vocalizations by the males.

* SIAMANGS are found only in Sumatra & Malaysia. They are similar to Gibbons but are larger with even longer arms. They have air sacs under the chin, which assist in vocalizing.

THE SUBFAMILY PONGIDAE includes Orangutans, Gorillas, Chimps:

* Orangutans: These are slow moving, arboreal, vegetarians, & the males are solitary. Mothers are very close to the young & make nests. The Orangutan is quadrumanous (i.e., it uses its upper limbs to hold on while walking on branches), and there is very obvious sexual dimorphism. Males have a large pouch under the chin, which enlarges in alpha male.

* Gorillas: Gorillas include the Lowland of East & West Africa & the Highland gorilla of East Africa. Basically, these are terrestrial vegetarians that walk on all four limbs (knuckle walkers); they build sleeping nests in trees.

* Chimpanzees are sociable, curious, very active & live in flexible social units. They also build nests in trees. Male 88-132 lbs/female 70-103 lbs. Lifespan c.53 years (in captivity, longer). Violence is common, male on female (+ infanticide) in particular.

* Bonobos are very closely related to chimps (pygmy chimp!). They are generally more slender & have longer arms; black hair overall & especially on top of head. Male 86 lbs/female 68 lbs. Lifespan c. 40 years. Social organization is of special interest--larger communities, more peaceful w/great interest in sex for sheer pleasure! N.B. Mostly studied in captivity.

Orphaned bonobo infants at a bonobo sanctuary in The Democratic Republic of Congo.

Primate Ecology

Diet
Most primates are herbivores
frugivores
folivores
Phenology
Dietary and Digestive Strategies
Strategic foraging

Digestion Strategies: Big body...leafy diet...slow! Small body...fruity diet...fast! Toxic leaves eaten by monkeys! Charcoal remedy for stomach aches...evidence of intelligence...problem solving.

Dieting & Feeding Competition: [see these notes in context of the next several slides.]

i. Activity budget: tightly linked to dietary intake. High fiber...sedentary life (as above); fruity diet...move it!

ii. Home range (diagram it): total area occupied for general living purposes

iii. Core area: for sleeping, watering, feeding

iv. Territory: area that must be defended

v. Predation: small bodies get zapped! Alarm calls help... sometimes in unusual ways. (even other species hear the cry too!)

Primate Ecology (cont’d)

You Are What You Eat: Dietary and Digestive Strategies
In general, the largest-bodied primates rely the least on insect prey
Chimpanzees and capuchin monkeys forage for insects intensively and at times consume large numbers of them
Gorillas don’t eat many insects
Very small-bodied primates rarely eat large quantities of leafy matter

Fairly clear here. Correct?

Primate Ecology (cont’d)

Diet
Primates select food to balance an energy budget of nutrients and calories that requires them to forage all day long
Diet and Feeding Competition
Nonhuman primates engage in feeding competition and use well-defined areas of their habitat to find food and shelter predation
Activity budget allows compensation for calories expended with calories consumed

Same again.

Primate Ecology (cont’d)

Territorial Ranges
All mammals, including nonhuman primates, live in defined places called home ranges
This area can be very limited, smaller than a football field in the case of some nocturnal strepsirhines, or many square kilometers in the case of some apes and monkeys
The range must contain all the resources needed by a nonhuman primate or a social group: water, food, shelter, and mates

Again….clear enough. If not, why not try reading p. 167ff.

Primate Ecology (cont’d)

Predation
Nonhuman primates in the wild face challenge of finding food while avoiding attacks by predators
Failing to find food will leave a monkey hungry the next day, but failing to avoid an attack by an eagle or leopard will leave it dead or injured
Behavioral defenses against predators

See p. 170 ff. Small bodies get zapped easily if captured! Thus, many of the primates use alarm calls help... sometimes in unusual ways. (Even other species hear the cry too and benefit from it!)

Primate Communities

Primate communities, like communities of other animals, are integral parts of tropical forest ecosystems

See p. 171 Have you found your “niche” in life? For the primates, niche separation is all important and involves issues of ecology:

All share same general area but...

a. Each species occupies a level of forest canopy, or

b. The respective species are diurnal or nocturnal

c. Each species favors a particular food source...gorillas vs chimps (p.173) In “good” times, both usually share same forest area, and both prefer a diet heavy in ripe fruits. BUT during times of shortage, gorillas go for fibrous plants while chimps continue to search for fruits, but they look farther afield.