Role of the Family - Short paper due in 7 hours

Get the Most out of Module 2

Before we delve into specific exceptionalities, starting with high-incidence disabilities, let us discuss the important topics of cultural and linguistic diversity and families. As you will learn, it is very important to understand how diversity affects evaluation and planning for children with exceptionalities. You will also learn about the important role of families as well as how children with disabilities affect their families.

Complete the following readings early in the module:

· Human exceptionality: School, community, and family (10th ed.), read the following chapters:

· Cultural and linguistic diversity

· Exceptionalities and families

· Learning disabilities and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

· Dyson, L. (2010). Unanticipated effects of children with learning disabilities on their families. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33, 43–55. (EBSCO AN: 48842496) http://libproxy.edmc.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=afh&AN=48842496&site=ehost-live

· Rogers-Adkinson, D. L., Ochoa, T. A., & Delgado, B. (2003). Developing cross-cultural competence: Serving families of children with significant developmental needs. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 18(1), 4–8. doi: 10.1177/108835760301800102 (ProQuest Document ID: 292011841) http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.edmc.edu/docview/292011841?accountid=34899

As our focus for this module is cultural and linguistic diversity and high-incidence disabilities, pay special attention to the assigned readings that deal with the topics listed below. You can even use the search feature in your digital textbook to help pinpoint specific text sections to review.

Keywords to search in your digital textbook and journal articles: cultural pluralism, overrepresentation, measurement bias, ecocultural, Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP), respite, learning disabilities, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, response to intervention (RtI), and enculturation.

Module 2 Learning Resources

Use Module 2 learning resources provided on the pages that follow to enhance your understanding of cultural and linguistic diversity and high-incidence disabilities. Take a moment to check out some of these featured learning resources:

· Exceptional Children: This self-assessment activity presents a scenario of Chandra, an exceptional child, and provides you the opportunity of identifying the exceptionalities presented and suggesting an intervention.

· Cultural Considerations: This self-assessment activity presents a scenario of Gerald, an exceptional child, and provides you the opportunity of identifying the cultural considerations that should be taken in this case.

· Family Roles and Impact: This infographic presents an explanation of the roles and the impact of the family.

Learning Outcome

· Describe and discuss the continuum of exceptional development, including identification of exceptionalities and individual strengths.

· Apply current, peer-reviewed research on environmental, biological, and cognitive influences on development to design systemic support and/or intervention plans for home, school, and transition for children with exceptionalities.

· Evaluate cultural, ethical, and legal considerations in identification and intervention and/or support of children with exceptionalities.

Module Topics

· Cultural and Linguistic Diversity

· Families

· Impact

· Roles

· Introduction to High-Incidence Disabilities

· Learning Disabilities

· Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Module 2 Overview—

This module will help you understand exceptionalities within the framework of cultural and linguistic diversity. You will examine factors that need to be considered when evaluating and developing support services. You will explore the role of the family as well as the potential challenges and positive effects children with exceptionalities have on their families.

You will be introduced to two of the most common high-incidence exceptionalities: learning disabilities and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. You will also learn about their prevalence, known causes, prognosis, and intervention.

In the assignments for this module, you will analyze the case of an eight-year-old Nigerian American boy, Kayin, and discuss how his teacher can address the cultural differences to help Kayin with his challenges. You will also write a paper describing the roles of families and the positive and negative impact children with disabilities can have on their families.

Influential person: Eunice Kennedy Shriver

Kennedy Shriver (1921-2009) was a champion for the rights of people with disabilities, particularly intellectual disabilities. Her many achievements included urging her brother, President Kennedy, to create the President’s Committee on Mental Retardation in 1961 and forming the Special Olympics in 1968 (Special Olympics, 2012).

Special Olympics (2012). Eunice Kennedy Shriver: One woman’s vision. Retrieved from: http://www.eunicekennedyshriver.org/

Exceptional Children

The Case of Chandra

Chandra is a seventh-grade student who enjoys learning. Chandra enjoys learning very much, but she has struggled in school. She loves to read, especially series books, but when it comes to writing, she is at a loss. Chandra’s teachers describe her as very creative and a wonderful storyteller.

Although Chandra’s writing is legible and she does not make significant spelling errors, when she tries to write down her ideas, she admits that her writing tends to come out as a jumbled mess.

She just cannot seem to get across what she is trying to write, and her sentences have no noticeable organization. Because she has difficulty understanding punctuation and sentence structure, Chandra tends to randomly include commas and periods, which adds to the difficulty of understanding her writing. Despite her struggles, Chandra continues to try and asks her teachers for help.

Q1. What exceptionalities and individual strengths does Chandra have?

Chandra has a specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression, as evidenced by her challenges with composing her thoughts in organized manner. It is understandable that Chandra might want to quit trying to write. However, it is admirable that she continues to try. Among her strengths are her persistence, positive attitude, and willingness to ask for help.

Q2. What interventions would be appropriate for Chandra?

Chandra loves to read and is a creative girl, which are definitely strengths her teachers should build upon. Many software programs can help Chandra improve her writing. Additionally, she might learn how to dictate, use strategies such as graphic organizers, and read her work aloud when finished to ensure that what she is writing makes sense.

Cultural and Linguistic Diversity

Consider the following scenario:

Nancy is a teacher in a public school in the U.S. She loves her job, and her goal is to help each individual child realize his or her potential. As a teacher, Nancy faces several challenges, including increased accountability and inclusive education (requiring her to understand how to work with children with special needs and typically developing children). In addition, there are several children in Nancy’s class who are English language learners (ELLs). In the U.S., even though Spanish is the most commonly spoken language after English, ELL students speak over 150 different languages (Batalova & McHugh, 2010).

In this scenario, it might seem an easy solution to require everyone to “just learn English.” However, as you may have learned in your previous course about childhood development, language acquisition takes time. As students are learning English, they must also learn the curriculum.

The Need For Cultural Considerations

There are several reasons to consider cultural and linguistic diversity when discussing children with exceptionalities, including the following:

· Changing attitudes and beliefs of various cultures toward people with exceptionalities

· Becoming aware of cultural norms that influence interpretation of behaviors

· Minimizing bias in evaluation

· Being sensitive when providing intervention and support

This module will explore each of these in more detail.

Batalova, J., & McHugh, M. (2010). Top languages spoken by English language learners nationally and by state. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute. Retrieved from http://www.migrationinformation.org/ellinfo/FactSheet_ELL3.pdf

Attitudes and Beliefs

It is important to understand that, just as our nation has evolved in its beliefs and attitudes toward those with exceptionalities over many years, other cultures have also developed their own beliefs and attitudes. Parents from different cultures might attribute the exceptionality to different causes, depending on their norms and beliefs.

For example, Masood, Turner, and Baxter (2007) indicate that there are several possible reasons for differences between Pakistani and American families regarding beliefs and acceptance of children with disabilities. These include access to medical information at the time of the child’s birth.

In Pakistan, prenatal care is often lacking, and babies are frequently born without the help of medical professionals. Lack of knowledge about the child’s medical condition, care, and prognosis often leads parents to turn to religion for answers. Education is not mandated for children with disabilities in Pakistan. A minority of parents may attribute a disability to parental sin or a lunar eclipse, while most cite “…fate, no cause, and will of God…” (Masood, Turner, & Baxter, 2007, p. 477). In contrast, many Americans understand that there are genetic abnormalities, influences of prenatal care, and medical errors that can contribute to these disabilities.

It was also found that parents who attributed the cause of their children’s disabilities to something they did or as punishment from God were more likely to have negative relationships with their children. Parents who saw their age as contributing to the child’s disability held more positive views of the child. Pakistani parents were more likely than American parents to report negative relationships with their children (Masood, Turner, & Baxter, 2007).

Food for Thought

Think about how different cultural beliefs and understanding of exceptionalities might influence the way professionals work with families.

Masood, A. F., Turner, L. A., & Baxter, A. (2007). Causal attributions and parental attitudes toward children with disabilities in the United States and Pakistan. Exceptional Children, 73(4), 475–487.

Cultural Norms and Bias

Influence of Cultural Norms on Behavior Interpretation

Across countries, and even regions within a country, there are different views on whether certain exceptionalities even truly exist. For example, in a study of several nations (Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, Israel, the Netherlands, Norway, United Kingdom, and the United States), Hinshaw et al. (2011) found that people in some regions of certain countries did not believe attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was a true disorder.

In China, there is little tolerance in classrooms for high activity levels, whereas, in Israel, this is not considered problematic. In Brazil, there have been campaigns against accepting ADHD and dyslexia as disorders. Even in the U.S., there is a significant difference in tolerance levels between regions of the country, school districts within the regions, and individual teachers within school districts.

The way people in a particular culture view behaviors can influence not just whether appropriate evaluation and interventions are available but also whether an exceptionality is recognized in the first place.

Minimization of Bias in Evaluation

Language is not the only way children can be diverse. There are racial, ethnic, regional, economic, and religious differences, among others. For years, researchers have studied cultural bias in assessments and attempted to minimize its occurrence.

A test bias refers to test items that offer some cultural advantage or disadvantage for a particular group. Banks (2006) explains that not only do test constructors need to be careful about minimizing language that might give a particular culture an advantage in choosing the correct answer, they must also be aware that distracter responses (incorrect answers) could pull certain groups toward them.

Consider the following questions when evaluating whether testing is culturally biased:

· What happens if the child’s primary language is not English?

· Could the child be penalized for not having been exposed to certain concepts on the evaluation?

· Can the terminology be accurately translated and yet retain the item’s validity?

· Are the test results consistent with what is observed in the classroom or home?

· Does the particular evaluation tool take cultural norms, beliefs, and values into consideration?

Banks, K. (2006). A comprehensive framework for evaluating hypotheses about cultural bias in educational testing. Applied Measurement in Education, 19(2), 115–132.

Hinshaw, S. P., Scheffler, R. M., Fulton, B. D., Aase, H., Banaschewski, T., Chen, W., & Weiss, M. D. (2011). International variation in treatment procedures for ADHD: Social context and recent trends. Psychiatric Services, 62(5), 459–464.

Cultural Considerations for Evaluation

Consider an example of a Vietnamese girl called Han.

Han came to the U.S. from Vietnam two years ago with her family. Though their primary language is Vietnamese, her parents can communicate on a basic level in English. Han is in first grade and began learning English last year when she entered kindergarten. Han’s parents mostly speak Vietnamese at home. However, her education has only been in English. She communicates fairly well with her peers in English, but her teacher notices that her reading development is lagging behind the others. She is unsure whether Han is exhibiting early signs of a learning disability or is simply experiencing challenges typical of ELL students.

It is important to consider the following questions regarding the challenges in addressing Han’s needs effectively:

· If Han is evaluated for a learning disability, could valid results be obtained if the assessment is conducted in English? Would the results differ if the assessment is conducted in Vietnamese?

· As her parents speak very little English, how can Han receive academic support outside of school?

· How can the evaluators determine whether Han has a true disability or is experiencing typical challenges of someone acquiring English?

· Would Han learn best if she is taught in Vietnamese, English, or both?

To meet Han’s needs effectively, it is critical for her teacher to collaborate with other professionals, as well as Han’s parents, to determine whether an evaluation is needed, develop support structures at school and home, and track her progress.

Cultural and Linguistic Diversity

There is much debate surrounding what type of program best supports ELLs. One argument is that providing instruction in the children’s native language as they acquire English can ensure their progress in the subject matter. Another argument is that with this method, English is not learned rapidly enough and learning in two languages at once is inefficient.

Aspira Consent Decree

In 1975, a lawsuit was brought against the New York City (NYC) Department of Education on behalf of Puerto Rican students. As a result of the lawsuit, today all public schools must offer bilingual education if they have at least fifteen students speaking the same language in two consecutive grades (New York City Department of Education, 2000, as cited in Conger, 2010).

Although the terms are often used interchangeably, there is a difference between English as a second language (ESL) classes and bilingual education classes. Children in ESL classes receive most of their instruction in English with their English-speaking peers. Children in bilingual classes are taught in their native language for some or all of the time until they are proficient enough to transition to classes taught only in English.

As noted by Conger (2010), even when enough students are identified as requiring bilingual education, there are much fewer resources (such as native-language books and teachers) for students who do not speak Spanish as their native language; therefore, often, these students receive most of their instruction in English.

Consistent with other studies, Conger (2010) concludes that his assessment of bilingual education in NYC public schools shows “bilingual education either interferes with English-language acquisition or has no effect” (p.1119). However, he cautions that it might be the implementation of the program or age of students that influenced the results. In other words, on the issue of whether bilingual education is desirable compared to ESL, the jury is still out.

Conger, D. (2010). Does bilingual education interfere with English-language acquisition? Social Science Quarterly, 91(4), 1103–1122.

Cultural Considerations

Approaching children and their families with cultural sensitivity helps build trust and enables professionals, families, and systems to work together to work to benefit the child.

Gerald’s Case

Gerald is an African American boy in first grade who has been receiving speech and language therapy for the last two years. His mother is very reluctant to consent to further testing or services beyond speech and language therapy, as she is very distrustful of the education system due to negative experiences in the past.

Despite concerns of Gerald’s teachers that he is behind academically and is exhibiting some behavioral problems, Gerald’s mother refused to allow the school to evaluate for additional disabilities. She reports that he does not exhibit behavior problems at home.

Q1. What cultural considerations should be taken in Gerald’s case?

School personnel need to keep in mind Gerald’s mother’s concern; distrust does not equal lack of concern (Fields-Smith, 2005). Gerald’s behavior and academics might be directly related to his speech and language difficulties, differences in expectations between home and school, or comorbid disabilities. Keeping an open dialogue with Gerald’s mother and including her as a key member of his education team will be critical in ensuring that Gerald gets the support he needs, whether further testing is ultimately pursued or not.

Fields-Smith, C. (2005). African-American Parents before and after Brown. Journal of curriculum and supervision, 20(2). 129-135

Families

In this course, we have alluded several times to the importance of families of children with exceptionalities. As noted in the discussion of cultural and linguistic diversity, sensitive and open communication with families is critical for understanding a child’s background and determining whether an exceptionality might exist.

Family Roles

Parents, siblings, and other family members are valuable assets to children with exceptionalities. They are often advocates, caregivers, observers, and reporters. As noted in your readings, receiving the news that one’s family member has an exceptionality is often a life-changing experience. Parents often undergo a process akin to Kubler-Ross’s (1969) stages of grief. These stages are as follows:

· Denial and isolation

· Bargaining

· Depression

· Acceptance

· Hope

Siblings

Siblings also experience challenges as the child with the exceptionality often requires more attention and care. They might experience embarrassment if the sibling displays disruptive behavior in public, and they might also take on the role of a protector. At the same time, they might resent the attention the child receives and may experience guilt, knowing their brother or sister is not at fault.

You have learned about family-centered care through your readings. An important part of this care is ensuring siblings of the child with exceptionalities receive support as well. Research has found that sibling relationships can affect people as adults, and poor relationships can lead to severe depression (Schuntermann, 2009).

Schuntermann (2009) points out that there can be positive effects of having a sibling with a developmental disability, including increased empathy and self-esteem, despite an increased risk for internalizing disorders (such as depression or anxiety) and externalizing disorders (such as behavioral disorders).

Siblings might resist therapy for several reasons, including fear of receiving similar services as the child with exceptionality, desire to be independent, and the tendency for their needs to take a back seat in the family. Schuntermann recommends that clinicians be proactive in working with families by inquiring how siblings are coping. In working with siblings, one can help them mentalize or think through the problems in order to solve them effectively (Schuntermann, 2009).

Kubler-Ross, E. (1969). On death and dying. London, England: Routledge.

Schuntermann, P. (2009). Growing up with a developmentally challenged brother or sister: A model for engaging siblings based on mentalizing. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 17(5), 297–214.

Sibling Issues: An Example

Consider the following example:

Keisha is a ten-year-old girl who loves to dance and has been taking classes since she was three. Her sister Kara is two years younger and has been diagnosed with autism. Kara does not like to be in crowded or noisy places. Sometimes, she gets very upset and screams while rocking back and forth and even hits her mother. Because of Kara’s behavior, Keisha’s mother rarely gets to watch Keisha dance. Usually, she waits outside with Kara, which is upsetting to Keisha as most of her peers’ mothers stay to watch their daughters dance. During one class, Kara waited inside with her mother as it was extremely cold outside. As their mother tried to watch Keisha dance, Kara became bored and frustrated, started rocking, threw the toy she had brought, and slapped her mother. Although most parents in the room stared or shook their heads, assuming the child was just being naughty, a woman asked Kara if she would like to play a game on her phone. Kara was immediately interested and spent the rest of the class playing the game with the woman. After the class, Kara’s mother grasped the kind woman’s hand and thanked her with tears in her eyes. “This is the first time in six years that I’ve been able to watch my older daughter dance,” she said. The woman winked and said, “I came to watch my granddaughter. I’ve been a teacher’s assistant for children with autism for ten years, and I know it’s hard. It was my pleasure.”

Stories such as this one illustrate the challenges of having a sibling with a disability. Keisha knows her mother must supervise Kara, while Kara’s behavior often draws the disapproval of strangers. Their mother must balance managing Kara’s behavior while being mindful of Keisha’s needs.

Family Roles and Impact

Barnett, R.A., & Hunter, M. (2012). Adjustment of siblings of children with mental health problems: Behavior, self-concept, quality of life, and family functioning. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 21, 262-272. DOI:10.1007/s10826-011-9471-2.

Easter Seals Disability Services (2012). Living with disabilities study. Retrieved from http://www.easterseals.com/site/PageServer?pagename=ntl_living_with_disabilities_study_home

Price, M.P.S. (2011). Divorce issues and the special needs child. American Journal of Family Law,25(1), 28-36.

High-Incidence Disabilities

As you learn more about specific exceptionalities, it is important to remember the topics discussed so far: importance of families, cultural and linguistic diversity, ethics, and legal issues.

Learning Disabilities

When people think of learning disabilities (LDs), dyslexia (reading disability) is often the first thought that comes to mind. Children might also have LDs in the areas of math (dyscalculia), spelling, and writing. As Büttner and Hasslehorn (2011) note, learning disabilities are diagnosed when a child is not performing as expected in one or more of these areas. The deficit cannot be due to “…intellectual disability, sensory impairment, emotional disturbance, cultural deprivation…insufficient instruction” (p. 76).

Although there are many theories about the causes of LDs, including differences in brain functioning, no one is certain about what contributes to them. For example, dyslexia was thought to be caused by visual processing problems. For those using alphabetic languages (such as English), phonological awareness is intertwined with reading disabilities. However, for nonalphabetic languages (such as Chinese), orthographic deficits (inability to form symbols accurately) seem to be a prominent feature (Büttner & Hasselhorn, 2011).

We do know that some factors increase the risk of a child developing an LD. These include, but are not limited to, exposure to teratogens in utero or during early childhood, malnutrition, low birth weight, genetics, and brain trauma.

As noted in your readings, LD often exists along with other challenges (comorbidity), such as ADHD.

Büttner, G., & Hasselhorn, M. (2011). Learning disabilities: Debates on definitions, causes, subtypes, and responses. International Journal of Disability, Development, and Education, 58(1), 75–87.

Learning Disabilities

Visit the following Websites to learn more about learning disabilities.

LD Online. (2012). http://www.ldonline.org/

Naitonal Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY) (2012). http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/ld

National Center for Learning Disabilities. (2012). http://www.ncld.org

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Consider the following example:

Joey is a quiet and sweet boy. His parents had never been concerned about him until he entered school. In his first few years of school, Joey’s teachers expressed concern about his slow academic progress compared to his peers but assumed he was developmentally immature and would catch up. By fourth grade, Joey was becoming increasingly frustrated, refusing to complete his work, and coming home in tears. His mother sat with him for hours to complete his work, but teachers reported that he did not turn it in. After much frustration and worry, Joey’s parents agreed to have him evaluated by the school psychologist. Much to their surprise, she found that Joey was exhibiting symptoms of ADHD—predominantly inattentive type. Several questions came to his parents’ minds. Didn’t kids with ADHD bounce off the wall and misbehave? If he could pay attention to his favorite television show and video games for hours, how could he have ADHD?

As illustrated in this example, ADHD does not always mean a child is hyperactive. Rather, he or she may have difficulty focusing attention. The labels have changed over the years, and the current DSM categories are as follows:

· ADHD—Combined presentation

· ADHD—Predominantly inattentive presentation

· ADHD—Predominantly hyperactive/impulsive presentation

All these types recognize that ADHD has a continuum of symptoms.

Many researchers think that conceptualizing ADHD as problems with attention or hyperactivity is too simplistic. Barkley (2005) states that “…ADHD probably is not primarily a disorder of paying attention but of self-regulation: how the self comes to manage itself within the larger realm of social behavior” (p. xi). More research is being conducted to examine how ADHD is related to executive functioning, that is, functions such as planning, organizing, or strategizing.

ADHD in the Classroom

In the video titled A.D.H.D In The Classroom, Russell Barkley, a leading researcher in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) discusses ADHD in the classroom along with the challenges and strategies used.

Dawkins, K. (Producer). (1994) A.D.H.D. In the classroom [video]. United States: Guilford Publications, Inc. Retrieved from http://ediv.alexanderstreet.com.libproxy.edmc.edu/view/1641090

ADHD

Visit the following Websites to learn more about attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). ADHD. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/topics/adhd/index.aspx

Barkley, R. A. (2005). Taking charge of ADHD. The complete, authoritative guide for parents. Spring Street, NY: The Guilford Press.

Treatment for ADHD

The treatment for ADHD includes the following components:

Diet

Change in diet as a treatment for ADHD has always been controversial. Although there are some reports of anecdotal evidence for the effectiveness of changes in diet, such as eliminating sugar, additives, or dyes for improving symptoms of ADHD, scientific research does not currently support this.

Behavioral interventions

Effective methods to improve behavior include individualized attention, consistent and immediate rewards for desired behaviors, and structured routine.

Medication

The most popular medical treatment for ADHD is stimulant medication, such as Ritalin or Concerta. It might seem counterintuitive that stimulant medication can decrease hyperactivity. We know that the frontal lobe of the brain is responsible for the executive functions of impulse control, planning, and attention. Stimulant medication works by increasing dopamine and norepinephrine, which increases frontal lobe function. Common side effects of this medication include trouble sleeping, weight loss due to decreased appetite, and slower growth.

Although many are worried that use of stimulant medication might lead to drug addiction, research shows that there does not appear to be increased risk for those who are prescribed stimulant medication for ADHD. However, when used off-label (such as by college students taking Ritalin to study), there might be an increased risk of addiction and other health problems (National Institutes of Health News, 2009).

For many children, a combination of behavioral and medical intervention is the most effective treatment.

National Institutes of Health News. (2009, February 2). NIDA study shows that methylphenidate (Ritalin) causes neuronal changes in brain reward areas. Retrieved from http://www.nih.gov/news/health/feb2009/nida-02.htm