religion

Religion

Cosmogony - Origin of the Universe

Nature of God

View of Human Nature

View of Good and Evil

View of “Salvation.”

View of After Life

Practices and Rituals

Celebrations and Festivals

Week 2

Hinduism

Hindus believe that the Universe precedes both gods and humanity.

External world is a product of illusion i.e. creative play called Maya

Hindus believe in a superior God, Brahman. They also worship other Gods and Goddesses as an extension of Brahman (ex. Vishnu, Krishna, Rama)

Human nature attributed to three paths namely: Vendas emphasizes on Life of a householder. Upanishads emphasizes to the life of asceticism. Bhagavadgita emphasizes on the devotion of being.

Karma law says that every action has consequences, and it is not attributable to God.

Punishment and reward may come in future.

Evil and suffering are due to previous mistakes.

Every living being has atman and believes in samsara (death and rebirth).

Moksha is the salvation according to Hindu.

Happens when an individual is enlightened and freed from life and death cycle.

Moksha has four ways: a way of action, a way of knowledge, a way of devotion, and the royal road.

Hindus believe that one’s afterlife is attributable to conduct of life.

They also believe in rebirth as well as reincarnation regarding souls.

Souls are both immortal and imperishable.

Hindus have rituals like worship (puja), and recitation.

Also have family-related passage rites, meditation, occasional pilgrimages, and annual festivals. Some Hindus engage in ascetic practices to achieve moksha.

Hindus believe in celebrations regarding significant event during the life of a deity, an event associated with holy person’s life, and seasonal customs like Holi.

Sources

Doniger, W. (2012). The origins of evil in Hindu mythology (No. 6). Univ of California Press.

Dhavamony, M. (2010). Love of God according to Śaiva Siddhānta: A study of the mysticism and theology of Śaivism. Clarendon Press.

Wilber, K. (2006). The Atman scheme: A transpersonal view of human development. Quest Books.

Doniger, W. (2013). The origins of evil in Hindu mythology (No. 6). Univ of California Press.

McCleary, R. M. (2007). Salvation, damnation, and economic incentives.Journal of Contemporary Religion, 22(1), 49-74.

Evans-Wentz, W. Y. (2000). The Tibetan Book of the Dead: Or the After-death Experiences on the Bardo Plane, According to Lama Kazi Dawa-Samdup's English Rendering. Oxford University Press.

Bell, C. (2002). Ritual theory, ritual practice. Oxford University Press.

Barnouw, V. (2004). The changing character of a Hindu festival. American Anthropologist, 56(1), 74-86.

Week 2

Jainism

Jainism considers not a creator deity. The matter and space have always existed in nature. Jainism believed that actions and constituents were ruled and governed by universal laws and the total of the matter remained the same in the universe.

Jainism does not trust in God as the creator of the universe. In respect to time, it has no end or the start. Jainism believes that an individual has that potential to become God. Also, Jainism believes that every living soul is attaché to Karma of its ignorant true nature.

Jainism believes that only human beings have souls with infinite and eternal power and knowledge. In nature, Jainism believes that people have power do be godlike.

Jainism believes in Dharma and Karma. Dharma is the rule and truth that each person should follow to the letter. The fundamental teaching guides a person in life. Karma is the wrong actions that are punished with the help of the universe without the assistance of God.

Jainism believes in three folds that lead to salvation. For an individual to have salvation he or she has to know and understand the right and requisite to belief as well avoid the wrong superstitious of evil beliefs

Jainism afterlife is dependent on an individual’s Karma that he or she sets. Also, it directly depends on the spiritual development and if someone reached moksha. Also, they believed that a person has to suffer eight times.

Jainism shares many practices with Hinduism and Buddhism. However, it does not have many followers like the Hinduism and Buddhism. Jainism rituals stress more on non-violence behaviors which are important in expressing faith.

Celebrations and of Jainism are characterized mainly by entertainments while festivals are considered to marked by the reading of scriptures, meditation, and renunciation. The important festivals are Paryushan Mahaparva, Navpad Oli and The birthday of Mahavir.

Sources

Jain, B., & Bertschinger, E. (2003). Second command power spectrum and nonlinear evolution at high redshift. arXiv preprint astro-ph/9311070.

Grimes, J. A. (2006). A concise dictionary of Indian philosophy: Sanskrit terms defined in English. SUNY Press.

Wilson, E. O. (2012). On human nature. Harvard University Press.

Songani, K. C. (2008). Jaina ethics and the meta-ethical trends. Studies in Jainism, Poona: Indian Philosophical Quarterly Publications, (7), 237-47.

Von Glasenapp, H. (2009). Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation (Vol. 14). Motilal Banarsidass Publ.

Arora, R. R., Chou, T. M., Jain, D., Fleishman, B., Crawford, L., McKiernan, T., ... & Keller, S. (2002). Effects of improved external counterpulsation on Health‐Related Quality of Life continue 12 months after treatment: a substudy of the Multicenter Study of Enhanced External Counterpulsation.Journal of investigative medicine, 50(1), 25-32.

White, D. G. (2001). Tantra in Practice (Vol. 8). Motilal Banarsidass Publ.

Singh, J., Bhatia, R., Gandhi, J. C., A. P., Khare, S., Patel, S. B., ... & Sokhey, J. (2008). The outbreak of viral hepatitis B in a rural community in India linked to inadequately sterilized needles and syringes. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 76(1), 93.

Week 3

Buddhism

Buddhists believe that the start and end of Universe involve nothing but births and deaths.

Buddhists believe that origin of the universe is all about samsara.

Buddhists believe that God is the supreme giver of law and has the welfare of all his creations.

He gives salvation (Moksha) to those who are good followers of his dictates.

Buddhists believe in Danica (impermanent).

No-soul doctrine that involves the anatta doctrine is paramount in Buddhism.

Human existence is in the following five forms: rupa (physical form), Vedanta (sensations), sanna (ideations), Sankara, and Vin nana.

Buddhists believe that evil and good are inseparable, and essential life aspects.

Every human being has the capability of being a strong idea or even the acts of evil.

The understanding of good or evil is subject to impacts rather than rules of conduct.

Buddhists believe that salvation involves reaching Nirvana.

Nirvana is the state of nothingness hence becoming a Buddha.

It is subject to the Noble Eightfold path including rights of understanding, resolve, speech, action, occupation, effort, contemplation, and meditation.

Buddhists believe in reincarnation and karma. They believe in the notion of escaping the cycle related to living and death.

Buddhists believe in practices like meditation, and devotion.

Buddhists believe in rituals like going to refuge, confession of faults, offering homage for to the Buddha, initiations, and ordinations.

Buddhists believe in a Buddha Day during the month of May to celebrate the birth, enlightenment as well as the death of the Buddha.

Festivals include Buddhist new year, Vesak Puja, Magha Puja Day, and the Elephant Festival among others.

Sources

Thomas, E. J. (2009). The life of Buddha as myth and history. Courier Corporation.

Cobb, J. B., & Ives, C. (Eds.). (2005). The Emptying God: A Buddhist-Jewish-Christian Conversation. Wipf and Stock Publishers.

Davidson, R. J., & Harrington, A. (Eds.). (2001). Visions of sympathy: Western scientists and Tibetan Buddhists examine human nature. Oxford University Press.

Podhisita, C. (2005). Buddhism and Thai world view. Traditional and changing Thai world view, 25-53.

Podhisita, C. (2012). Buddhism and Thai world view. Traditional and evolving Thai world view, 25-53.

Keown, D. (2005). End of life: the Buddhist view. The Lancet, 366(9489), 952-955.

Keown, D. (2007). End of life: the Buddhist view. The Lancet, 366(9489), 952-955.

Jeong, S., & Santos, C. A. (2004). Cultural politics and contested place identity. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(3), 640-656.

Week 4

Daoism

Taoists believe that the universe came into being approximately 550 B.C.E. The heavens mixed with the world or earth where the organization regarding the universe slept somewhere within the chaos in a kind of an egg. After about 18000 years, the egg hatched into Heaven (Yang) and earth (Yin).

Taoists believe in numerous deities. Mainly they think that the classification of God is under Pantheism (“God is all, and All is God”). That means that nature, the universe as well as God are all equivalent.

Taoists believe in that human is merely and relatively unimportant, and just a single section of life. Therefore, human being ought to be unadorned and straightforward with no illusions of importance in the cosmos. Humans ought to merely follow the Tao.

In Taoism, the course of nature is self-dependent. That means that those individuals who tend to develop own nature courses or the Tao become good while those who fail become evil. The man’s nature is evil, and the goodness in him is the outcome of the personal activity.

Taoism believes that salvation is unnecessary. On needs no salvation from anything. The Taoists believe that salvation may lead to damnation, and since they do not believe in damnation, there is no need of salvation. Instead, they believe in living simple and with harmony with particularly the Tao and not excessively pursuing material wealth, prestige, and stature.

Taoists believe that that the soul tends to live on, and afterlife usually reflects the approach of religion towards life and not death itself.

Taoists usually have practices associated with visiting shrines so as to pay Taoist deities an homage and also the Tai Chi. Rituals attempt to bringing peace to the universe, society, and individuals. The Chiao becomes an important ritual of Taoists for worldwide revival. Self-cultivating practices like gymnastic, meditation, and special diets.

Taoism believes in holidays and festivals like the Lantern Festival that involves party regarding the first moon that is full, and the Tomb Sweeping Day that originated from Tang Dynasty. More so, there is Dragon Boat Festival that celebrates the man called Yuan, a poet. Also, there is the Hungry Ghost Festival.

Sources

Kohn, L. (2008). God of the Dao: Lord Lao in past and myth (No. 84). Center for Chinese Studies, The Universi.

TUAN, Y. F. (2011). DISCREPANCIES BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOUR: EXAMPLES FROM EUROPE AND CHINA*.The Canadian Geographer/Le Géographe canadien, 12(3), 176-191.

Taggart, W., & Robey, D. (2001). Minds and managers: On the dual nature of human information processing and management. Academy of Management Review, 6(2), 187-195.

Adams, C. (2003). For good and evil: The impact of taxes on the course of civilization. Rowman & Littlefield.

Gundry, S. N., Okholm, D. L., & Phillips, T. R. (2010). Four views on salvation in a pluralistic world. Zondervan.

Sagara-Rosemeyer, M., & Davies, B. (2007). The integration of religious traditions in Japanese children's view of death and afterlife. Death studies,31(3), 223-247.

Smith, H., & Marranca, R. (2009). The world's religions. New York: HarperOne.

Teiser, S. F. (2008). The ghost festival in medieval China. Princeton University Press.

Week 4 Confucianism

Confucius believe that the universe came into existence around 550 B.C.E. Confucius beliefs in the initiation of the universe is subject to the Tao force. Through Tao, there came complementary Yang and Yin forces, energy, and tension that define everything within the universe.

Though the Confucius believe in one God, it not God as such but a force is known as the Tao (Great Ultimate). They believe that the Tao is the stimulus towards creation, and the power tends to flow through all life hence enabling betterment and change. They believe that heaven becomes the guiding force towards the judgment of wrong or right regarding the universe.

Confucius see a human in the perspective of compulsory respect towards the superior humans. Human nature is usually good though environmental influence may bring negative issues. Every human being has a heart and mind that feels for others.

A mistake according to Confucianism is usually not a sin but rather an opportunity for learning while doing better things subsequent times. Empathy provides motivation to grow to do good while those without empathy tend to do evil.

Confucianism believes salvation as respecting each other. It does not believe in religious salvation. The belief in solving issues, not through salvation but rather through knowledge obtained from ancestor’s experience

Confucianism believes in appropriate life behaviors and not concentrating on future heaven. The afterlife is usually unknowable and therefore, this life ought to involve effort towards honoring ancestors, and respecting elders.

Confucius have traditions like visiting the temples with the aim of paying homage towards the Tien (God or Heaven), ancestors, and Confucius to practice Quiet Sitting.

Confucianism believes in holidays and festival like the birthday of Confucius on September 28th. Also celebrates Chinese New Year, usually 31st. Qing Ming often another important holiday celebrated 106 days just after the winter solstice. Another festival is Ching Ming celebrated on the 15th day following the spring equinox.

Sources

Fairbank, J. K., & Goldman, M. (2006). China: A new history. Harvard University Press.

Stevenson, L., & Haberman, D. L. (2008). Ten theories of human nature. Oxford University Press.

Lee, W. O. (2006). The cultural context for Chinese learners: Outsets of learning in the Confucian tradition. The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences, 34, 63-67.

Lee, W. O. (2011). The cultural context for Chinese learners: Conceptions of learning in the Confucian tradition. The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences, 34, 63-67.

Gundry, S. N., Okholm, D. L., & Phillips, T. R. (2010). Four views on salvation in a pluralistic world. Zondervan.

Yü, Y. S. (2007). " O Soul, Come Back!" A Study in The Changing Conceptions of The Soul and Afterlife in Pre-Buddhist China. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 47(2), 363-395.

Ebrey, P. B. (2014). Confucianism and family rituals in Imperial China: A social history of writing about rites. Princeton University Press.

Jeong, S., & Santos, C. A. (2004). Cultural politics and contested place identity. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(3), 640-656.

Week 5

Shinto

Kami, the single essence that manifests in multiple different places, involves the spirits naturally perceived in the world. The Kami created the universe. Kami began as the heaven center while giving birth and subsequent growth of other Kami.

Shinto believes in polytheistic in the sense of worshiping multiple deities. Kami usually close to humans and happens to provide feedback of the personal prayers

Shinto believes in humans being a section of the sacred natural realm. Humans are inherently good and usually have a spirit or “Kami”.

Shinto believes in humans being born pure, and that sins or badness come afterward in life. Purifying or cleansing rituals wash away the sins or badness. Goodness involves loyalty while fulfilling family duties, being polite, and highly valued.

Shinto believes that living things usually have a soul, or spirit, the essence that defines salvation. Kamin tends to live among the Shinto rather than in particularly glorified heaven.

Shinto believes that the individuals who violently die lead unhappy lives. The people who tend not to care for Kami become ghosts who are hungry hence causing living to get troubles. There is no direct address for death and Shinto’s focus on Kami being immortal.

Shinto believes in washing with water to as purification practice. It removes impurities and dust covering one’s mind. The Shinto religion lacks weekly religious services. There is visiting of shrines that act as homes for Kami.

Shinto believes in festivals like the Spring Festival as well as Harvest Festival. Rites such as shrine confinement and water purification take place during the festivals. Some of the events related to the festivals are wrestling, and the lion dance.

Sources

Stiskin, N. (2012). The Looking-glass God...: Shinto, Yin-yang, and a Cosmology for Today. Random House Incorporated.

Smith, H., & Marranca, R. (2009). The world's religions. New York: HarperOne.

Geertz, C. (2014). Distinguished lecture: anti anti‐relativism. American anthropologist, 86(2), 263-278.

Ono, S., & Woodard, W. (2011). Shinto The kami way. Tuttle publishing.

Ono, S., & Woodard, W. (2011). Shinto The kami way. Tuttle publishing.

Beckford, J. A., & Demerath, J. (Eds.). (2007). The SAGE handbook of the sociology of religion. Sage.

Tanabe, G. J. (2009). Religions of Japan in practice. Princeton University Press.

Nelson, J. K., & Nelson, J. K. (2010). Enduring identities: The guise of Shinto in contemporary Japan. University of Hawaii Press.

Week 6

Judaism

Judaism believes that a Divine God made every real thing. Judaism rejects the notion of dualistic that suggests that Satan created evil. All comes from that particular God.

God according to Judaism is a single, complete, whole, and indivisible entity. There are no available features of God by any human being.

According to Judaism, God created humans in his image. The formation of humans is in two impulses that involve an evil desire, and a real impetus. Individuals have the ability to choose the desire to follow. Everyone has his or her origin from Adam hence no blame for personal wickedness. Judaism believes that everyone is accountable for choices made.

Judaism believes that both good and evil allude to light and darkness. God created good and evil. Humans have the capability right or wrong choices.

According to Jewish Bible, there is the belief that salvation originated from the Lord hence being the favor given to the whole nation. Repentance is a prerequisite for salvation

Judaism believes that there exists no clear idea of afterlife since only God has the mandate over one’s afterlife.

According to Judaism, anointment was the most primary component of formularies of rituals. Oil pouring is a great method that may allow the gods to execute a curse to an individual.

Jewish holy days include the Sabbath, the High Holy Days (Rosh Hashanah, and Yom Kippur), and the pilgrimage festivals. Jews forbid working on these days.

Sources

Barnstone, W. (2005). The other bible. Harper Collins.

Barbour, I. G. (2007). Religion and science: Historical and contemporary issues.

Niebuhr, R. 2006). The Nature and Destiny of Man: A Christian Interpretation: Human Nature. Westminster John Knox Press.

Nietzsche, F. (2003). Beyond good and evil. Penguin.

Luomanen, P. (2008). Entering the kingdom of heaven: A study of the structure of Matthew's view of salvation (Vol. 101). Mohr Siebeck.

Raphael, S. P. (2009). Jewish views of the afterlife. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Smith, H., & Marranca, R. (2009). The world's religions. New York: HarperOne.

Schauss, H. (2009). The Jewish Festivals. Wildside Press LLC.

Week 7

Christianity

Christians believe that God created everything in His wisdom. Creation had a purpose. Hence, the world lacks moral neutrality but is fundamentally sound. The purpose, therefore, defines the intention of God to have his creatures enjoy justice and perfect love.

Christianity believes that God becomes the Supreme Being with all the abilities to give and take away the life of a person.

Christians believe that early humans have their creation from God whose image resembles them. The real nature associated with the production is humans. The humans have the choice of God or not choosing him.

Christians believe in both good and evil. They have faith in a loving creator who is good to them. Evils have repercussions like sufferings including emotional, natural, or right forms. Moral evil includes fellow humans causing moral suffering.

Christians believe that trusting and believing in Jesus Christ, and the Holy Bible helps in receiving salvation. Christians further believe that life, death, and Christ’s resurrection made salvation possible.

Christians believe that there is a slight variation between individual Christians, and denominations regarding the afterlife. Most Christians believe that heaven becomes a place for believers of dying where they enjoy God’s presence and other believers. In heaven, there is no sin.

Christians have several practices depending on denominations. Standard practices are Sunday service of worship, reading the scriptures, and corporate and private prayers. Familiar routines are communions and baptism.

Christians have festivals like Easter, Lent, and Christmas. They celebrate the birth of Christ during Christmas. Working on these special days is prohibited. Easter is celebration associated with the resurrection of Christ. Lent involves a period that is six weeks before Easter.

Sources

Christian, D., & McNeill, W. H. (2011). Maps of spell: an Introduction to Big History, With a New Preface (Vol. 2). Univ of California Press.

Barbour, I. G. (2007). Religion and Science: Historical and contemporary issues.

Barbour, I. G., & Bailey, J. M. (2008). Issues in science and religion.American Journal of Physics, 36(6), 562-563.

Ruether, R. R. (2012). Gaia & God: An Ecofeminist Theology of Earth Healing. San Francisco^ eCA CA: HarperSanFrancisco.

Senior, D., & Stuhlmueller, C. (2013). The biblical foundations for the mission. Orbis Books.

Hill, P. C., & Hood, R. W. (Eds.). (2009). Measures of religiosity. Religious Education Press.

Smith, H., & Marranca, R. (2009). The world's religions. New York: HarperOne.

Hayward, M., & Hopkins, P. (2010). Resources for teaching about universe religions in English schools: an audit. London: DCS.

Week 8

Islam

Islam believes that Allah, who tends to be the Supreme Being, created everyone and everything including the Universe.

Islam teaches while believing that the one God, Allah, has 99 attributes. Some of Allah’s attributes are understandable while His essence is hard to comprehend by the limited human mental capacity. He is transcendent and usually not part of His creation.

Allah becomes God of justice. HE expects submission towards to divine will and righteous behavior while punishing the unrighteousness. Among the 99 name attributes according to Qur’an are the Fashioner, the Creator, the Provider, the Life-Giver, and the Reckoner among others.

Islam believes that humans are considerably the greatest creatures of the creation of Allah. The humans created with unrestricted will with the reason or purpose for serving while obeying God.

Islam believes that life is a test regarding the decision between evil and good. The Qur’an vividly states the only being that defines right and wrong is God. Good tends to bring a person closer towards God while benefiting him in the coming next world.

Evil tends to obscure one from God while incurring His anger. God gives human chances to choose evil or good which were both created by God

Muslims believe that the life purpose is living in ways that please the Allah for one to gain Paradise. Islam believes that there is the opening of one’s account regarding deeds at the puberty age. The account of the act used to the judgment day in determining one’s eternal fate. The Qur’an also proposes the divine predestination doctrine.

Muslim believe that unbelievers (Kuffar) and the sinners face condemnation and the repentance that is genuine makes Allah forgive hence entering the Paradise upon death

Muslims believe in either Hell or Paradise. The sinners will go to hell while those who submit to Allah will go to Paradise after death.

Islam further believes in spiritual resurrection regarding the righteous where black individuals will mentally resurrect first

Muslims believe in five pillars namely prayer (salat), faith (shahada), fasting (sawm), Alms (Zakat), and pilgrimage (hajj). Mosque tends to service on Fridays.

There are ablutions before prayer and no pork or alcohol. Modest dress is paramount in the Islamic religion. Muslims believe in praying five times every day.

Islam believes in two festivals namely Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. Eid al-Fitr marks the end of Ramadan (fasting period) while Eid al-Adha commemorates Prophet Ibrahim.

Muslims believe in Islamic New Year, Day of Arafa, the Ashura Day, and the Laylat al-Qadr among others.

Sources

Islam, J. N. (2002). An introduction to mathematical cosmology. Cambridge University Press.

Pipes, D. (2013). In the Path of God: Islam and political power. Daniel Pipes.

Ali, S. S. (2000). Gender and personal privileges in Islam and international law: equivalent before Allah, Unequal before ma. Kluwer Law International.

Albright, M. K., Woodward, W., & Clinton, B. (2006). The Mighty and the Almighty: Reflections on America, God, and world affairs (p. 8). New York: HarperCollins.

Hoover, S. M., & Clark, L. S. (Eds.). (2002). Practicing religion in the age of the broadcasting: explorations in media, religion, and culture. Columbia University Press.

Rudnyckyj, D. (2010). Spiritual Economies: Islam, Globalization, and the afterlife of development. Cornell University Press.

Bell, C. (2012). Ritual theory, ritual practice. Oxford University Press.

Smyth, E., Darmody, M., & Lyons, M. (2013). Introduction (pp. 1-14). Palgrave Macmillan UK.

Week 9

Sikhism

Sikhism believes that Kartar is the one who created the universe with a single command and usually takes care of it.

The command is the one that set the world into being while the orders run the universe. Humans became the apex of the world and all creations in it.

Sikhism believes in two forms of God: Nirguna and Sarguna forms. The Nirguna form depicts the state of God before the creation of the universe. He existed alone with no planets, the sun, or any production.

Sikhs believe that human life is a chance of merging with the heavenly (divine) will. However, the fundamental problem is that there is blocking of human judgment by a sense of false.

Sikhism believes that evil exists when individuals become selfish while right exists since the souls of the individuals believe in being part of the divine universe of the Supreme Being.

Sikhs believe in the salvation as the main idea regarding the lifeways. The basis of salvation is doing while living real lives whether as Sikhs or even non-Sikhs.

There is no fear in those embracing salvation.

The Sikh emphasizes on a life without worrying regarding the afterlife. One should focus on noble deeds as well as piety in the present life. Liberation (Mukti) becomes the metaphor to achieve the best in the afterlife. Sikhism also believes in reincarnation till one resolves Karma while merging with God.

Sikhs believe in practices related to praying and meditation in the name of God. More so, there is temple services (gurdwara), the turban, worship, charity, and balance of work.

Guru Nanak emphasized on working hard, sharing the earnings, and remembering at all times that God is the only Doer and Giver. Participating in the world while helping others is essential according to Sikhism.

Sikhism believes in significant holidays like gulp urbs, and festivals are marking the martyrdom of the Guru. Other festive holidays are fairs or meals, Maghi, and Vaisakhi (marking the founding of Khalsa).

Sources

Dhillon, G. S. (2001). Insights into Sikh Religion and History. Singh & Singh Publishers.

Geisler, N. L. (2009). The Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics (Vol. 490). Baker Books.

Clayton, S., & Myers, G. (2015). Conservation psychology: Considerate and promoting human care for nature. John Wiley & Sons.

Coward, H., & Sidhu, T. (2000). Bioethics for clinicians: 19. Hinduism and Sikhism. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 163(9), 1167-1170.

Gandhi, S. S. (2008). Account of the Sikh Gurus: A Comprehensive Study. Gur Das Kapur.

MOORE, R. (2015). Rel S 358 Death, Dying, and the Afterlife.

Smith, H., & Marranca, R. (2009). The world's religions. New York: HarperOne.

Ballantyne, T. (2006). Between Colonialism and Diaspora: Sikh Cultural Formations in an Imperial world. Duke University Press.

Week 10

New Religious Movements

The NRMs through Scientology belief allude that Eight Dynamic (God) created everything. It rapidly expanded into an international movement having a visible presence in nearly seventy countries. It emerged with rapid changes of religion seeing the rise of western religious pluralism.

New Religious Movements (NRM) teach that the God’s concept expressed as God (Eighth Dynamic). Also viewed as the Supreme Being, who rests at the apex of survival of the universe. The God has divine power that pervades all things.

Scientology views human beings as fundamentally sound. Humans are unique and free from sins unless involved through external influencing making one have sins.

NRM denies while minimizing the mere existence of evil. Evil, sin, and illness exist through the will of human mind. Crime causes suffering of individuals. There is also the belief of goodness that comes out of one’s choice to do good things. Good has positive outcomes according to NRMs.

The NRM admits a reincarnation form mostly developed from antecedents like Buddhism and Hinduism. The New movements of religion believe that one’s soul reincarnates via lives successions from a lower level or state regarding spiritual awareness to a high awareness.

Therefore, salvation basis from the soul subconsciously determining its rebirth within the spiritual needs.

The New Religious Movements understand both death and afterlife in multiple ways like emphasizing on the continuation of individuals after death. Death becomes the start of another life.

The NRMs believe in various modern practices and associated rituals of the new age. There are sacred times like Age of Aquarius, and sacred space like mythical lost continents.

There is also the belief in rites and ceremonies whose rituals encompass healing techniques, and searching spiritual awareness.

There are practices like daily devotions characterized by reading periodicals and books, praying, and meditation.

The NRMs belief in various celebrations borrowed from several world religions like Taoism, and Hinduism. There are holidays like New Year, and birth celebrations among others.

Sources

Christian, D., & McNeill, W. H. (2011). Maps of time: an Introduction to Large History, With a New Preface (Vol. 2). Univ of California Press.

Barker, E. (2009). New religious movements: A practical introduction. HMO.

Barbour, I. G. (2000). Religion in an Age of Science (Vol. 1). London: SCM Press.

Beckford, J. A. (2005). Cult Controversies: The communal response to new religious movements (Vol. 285). CUP Archive.

Driel, B., & Richardson, J. T. (2008). Print media coverage of new religious movements: A longitudinal study. Journal of Communication, 38(3), 37-61.

Giddens, A., Duneier, M., & Appelbaum, R. P. (2003). Introduction to sociology. Norton.

Beckford, J. A. (2005). Cult disagreements: The general response to new religious movements (Vol. 285). CUP Archive.

Smyth, E., Darmody, M., & Lyons, M. (2013). Introduction (pp. 1-14). Palgrave Macmillan UK.