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WHAT ARE THE METHODS THAT CAN BE EMPLOYED TO REDUCE THE THREAT TO THE NATION’S CYBER SYSTEMS

A Master Thesis

Submitted to the Faculty Comment by Chris: Change to “of”.

Of

American Public University

By

In Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the degree Comment by Chris: Change to “of”.

Of

Master of Arts

March 2016

American Public University

Charles Town, WV

Ahmad, R. & Yunos, Z. A dynamic cyber terrorism framework. International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security, 10(2), 149-158.

Contrary to traditional warfare, today's battlefield go beyond national borders since cyber space has increased the scope. Even the most important department the nation’s security, the defense, is under constant threat from terrorists. Enemies of the US are devising ways of cracking down the country’s valued information system especially the Defense Department.

The availability of hacking tools has increased over time as well as the quality. Unlike the weapons of conventional warfare, tools for cyber warfare are accessible and undergoing constant sophistication. As a matter of fact, a country or organization with limited technology, staff, and funding and defense infrastructure is able to wreak havoc on short notice from any region in the world. As a matter of fact, there have been cases of attacks on the nation’s defense information systems, stock exchange among others. Subsequently, the US security departments should remain sober through so as to protect citizens at all times.

Brenner, Susan W. Cybercrime. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Praeger, 2010.

The author explains what cyber-crime is, and the need for everyone to be concerned about it, including the common citizen computer, is either used as a tool or target in cyber criminality. Furthermore, cyber-crime has not only led to a relatively new form of crime but has also led to the transformation of committing traditional crimes. The only effective way of fighting cybercrime is waging a common battle involving all stakeholders; the public, law enforcement, private and public sectors as well as regional and international allies.

Given the increased global interconnectedness today, online communication has led to the emergence of new risks. This communication surpasses physical barriers leading to a struggle on international legal framework since each nation is only able to regulate communication within its jurisdiction. The legal implications surrounding cyber-crime benefits criminals who have actually formed networks comparable to terrorist groups. The emergence of cyber terrorism is a clear indication of the constant evolution of cybercrime hence need for a dynamic international framework to tackle it effectively.

Merton, Robert King. Social Theory and Social Structure, n.d.

Numerous theories have been constructed to explain crime among them Robert Merton’s strain theory. He coined his theory based on the concept of the “American Dream” which piles pressure on individuals. Deviant subcultures emerge in the society when there is too much emphasis on success but limited means of achieving. Some of the highlighted flaws of the society include the inability to access quality education, inadequate employment opportunities among others.

This theory is relevant to this study in that, cybercrime, a relatively new crime must have emerged as a result of social and economic factors. Although it can be argued that technology has led to the occurrence of cybercrime, a bad intent comes into play in the occurrence of any crime. People react to a number of ways when pressure is placed upon then to succeed. Conformists will stick to the institutionalized means of success, Ritualists lose sight of success but stick to legal means of making a living. Furthermore, innovators accept the institutionalized goal of success but create their own means of achieving it. Retreatism occurs when people reject the emphasis of success and means of achieving it. Finally, Rebellion is a mode of adaptation whereby an individual rejects both the culturally accepted goals as well as means of achieving it but replace them with new means of success. Drawing reference from this theory, a good number of individuals engage in cybercrime for profit which can be translated as a means of achieving success.

Khaddar, Majid. War and Peace in the Law of Islam. Clark, NJ: Lawbook Exchange, 2007.

Globalization and modern technology have made criminal activity more common, easier to commit but hard to detect hence more lucrative. Since perpetrators of cybercrime come from a wide spectrum of society, profit driven crimes remain of importance to perpetrators the same way business is to owners. The author gives an articulate analysis of modern doctrines regarding war and peace and its adaptation to contemporary conditions. Crime in the 21st century has really evolved thus understanding crime in its very nature as it is in the society.

Criminals are always on the lookout for valuable information to steal it for a competitive edge or financial gain. Defense to counter cybercrime is evolving just the same way cybercrime is undergoing sophistication. Therefore, the best way to protect oneself or business organization from falling victims is ensuring that the latest defenses are kept in place. Four main ways of ensuring data security are highlighted namely, raising awareness by the public and training staff, ensuring that software used is updated, ensuring firewalls are correctly configured and retaining security expertise within forms to ensure that threats are addressed as they occur.

Jaishankar, K. Cyber Criminology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2011.

Victims of crime require special care other than punishing perpetrators or restoring justice. This is because crimes inclusive cybercrime have detrimental effects on individuals since it entails loss of personal identification, monetary loss, and low productivity. Due to the anonymity assured in the perpetration, victimization through information networks is on the rise.

According to the literature, an individual’s lifestyle patterns and act as a predisposing factor to victimization. Depending on the type of attack, there exist two ways of becoming victim namely direct or indirect attack. A direct attack happens when an individual’s action is necessary for the course of attack such as opening an email attachment, visiting websites infected with malware among others. Indirect victimization occurs when an individual’s information is obtained by cyber criminals from cyber systems belonging to service providers such as e-shops among others. Consequently, individuals whose lifestyle entails a lot of activity using the internet such as communication, business, and shopping, entertainment among others has a higher susceptibility than less active individuals in the virtual world.

Press, Bernan. Crime in the United States 2009. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Pub. Group, 2009.

The author provides findings released by the FBI annually from its Uniform Crime Reporting Program (UCRRP). Numerous forms of crimes are advanced in the publication and are grouped into various categories such as race, sex, and age of victims and offenders. The age of committing cybercrime is said to be 17 years in the United States while the victim age is open. However, youths are among the most vulnerable groups with distributed denial of service, cyber stalking, hacking and child soliciting and abuse the most likely forms of attacks.

It’s important to have a clear picture of the state of cyber criminality in the nation before embarking on devising means of curbing it. It’s a fact that cyber systems in the United states area under risk of cyber-attacks more than ever since the inception of the internet in 1989. A less generalized approach is the better option in dealing with the menace posed by cybercrime so as to deal with each group based on specific demographic factors to prevent offending as well victimization.

Holt, Thomas J, and Adam M Bossler. Cybercrime In Progress. Theory And Prevention Of Technology-Enabled Offenses, n.d.

Perpetrators of cybercrime are not necessarily knowledgeable in the technical front. This is because they can purchase software or malware needed in perpetration of these crime which come along with guides and tips of use. Further there is ready information in the internet as well people willing to help them out. Furthermore, there exists ready-made malicious software for download. These factors reduce the hardship in obtaining tools of perpetration thus make cybercrime a risk worth taking.

The relevance of this literature lies within the essence of educating the community to protect themselves. Enhancing the capability of government agencies in the fight against crime, cultivating an approach whose main focus is intelligence gathering are some of the proposed methods of fighting cyber criminality. Moreover, ensuring an effective court system and improving international collaboration are also very vital. Given that the US incurs loss of business as well as taxation revenues, a good prevention investment is worth it.

Benner, Eric. "Apple Fights Order To Unlock San Bernardino Gunman’S iPhone". Nytimes.Com. Last modified 2016. Accessed March 3, 2016. http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/18/technology/apple-timothy-cook-fbi-san-bernardino.html.

More often than not, the question of civil rights and prevention of cyber criminality raise questions. Human rights and justice and justice should not be suspended even in times of war as this removes their very essence. As a matter of a great psychologist argued that justice is not a natural phenomenon and would not exist if people coexisted harmoniously. Therefore, its existence seeks to serve a given purpose which should not be ignored under any circumstances.

The relevance of this literature to the research question is enormous. Criminals will always leave a trail of evidence on electronic gadgets when used in the perpetration of crimes. ‘Therefore, law enforcement may want to have unchallenged authority to access any gadget they wish even in the course of justice. This would, however, put individual’s right of privacy. On the contrary, this move may be seen as protecting terrorists and cyber criminals by ensuring that the road to detection full of hardships. This is a very critical in the US right now and should be given undivided attention because a solution today is an achievement today and the future in the war against cyber-attacks and cyber terrorism.

Clough, J. Principles of cybercrime. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

The view that technology has exceeded our humanity is somehow true in the contemporary world. It is actually impossible to determine the scale of cybercrime problem. Technology is depicted as far reaching with an estimated figure of over 1.6 billion people accessing the internet. Furthermore, more people access computers which are being designed to be user-friendly and easier to use. Consequently, software is being produced and advanced at a high rate thus the problem of bugs which can be exploited inevitable.

Cybercrime is a problem being faced by all countries with causal factors being more or less similar. Therefore, a multi-dimensional move is the best approach in dealing with cybercrime. Understanding the unique factors affecting a particular nation cannot be overlooked either way. According to this literature, a clear definition of cybercrime needs to be formed as the first step towards securing a legal backing to this problem. In a nutshell, gaps in law must be eliminated.

Goodman, M. Future Crimes: Everything Is Connected, Everyone Is Vulnerable and What We Can Do About It. New York [New York]: Doubleday, 2015.

The author benefits the world by going to an extent of explaining how digital devices that are often ignored in the explanation of cybercrime act as a soft target for criminals. Such devices and services include 3d printers, home automation, mobile payment, facial recognition, GPS, driverless cars among others. He, therefore, gives the world a call that every single gadget deserve to be handled with care in terms of security

This literature secured lots of recommendation for people trying to understand online security as well as resultant crime issues due to its detailed information. If people understand the underlying factors and issues within the topic of cybercrime, they become empowered and better placed to collaborate with the nation’s law enforcement agencies in the fight to secure the nations cyber systems. The exhaustive coverage of this literature shows that due to the fact that everything is interconnected in the virtual world, everyone is at risk of falling victim hence the way forward not taking anything for granted.

Kirwan, G., & Power, A. The psychology of cybercrime: Concepts and principles. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference, 2012.

This literature suggests that there exists a relationship between cybercrime and abnormal psychology. The most prominent disorders are anti-social personality disorder, narcissism, compulsive disorder, addictive behavior and Asperger syndrome. The author rightly advances a new scope relevant to this study when he states that when hackers ensure anonymity, they avoid labeling hence cultivate a perception that their actions are not deviant. The psychological profiling of cyber criminals stands to benefit the academic community, legal system, private sector and national security sector.

Fighting any form of crime requires having prior knowledge of what crime entails regarding its nature of perpetration, target groups, predisposing factor, demographic factors in perpetration and offending among other factors. Therefore proving that psychological factors indeed cause perpetration of cybercrimes within this study shall be of great help in assisting suspects and offenders undergo proper reformation given the high rates of recidivism in our nation. In other words, by understanding the motivating factors crime, better prevention, detection and intervention of such activities can be instituted.

Kirwan, G., & Power, A. Cybercrime: The psychology of online offenders. Cambridge University, 2013.

The author takes a very reserved point of view in understanding the psychology of cyber criminals. This literature shows the difficulty in relating the two aspects as it would be to determine who would be a CEO of a multinational company, a serial killer, an al Qaeda jihadist among others based on psychological profile. However, in spite of the challenges stated, employers would mainly be negligent not to take into account factors if any showing that certain candidates possess a high risk of being cyber criminals.

Although little hope of relating the two phenomena is depicted, this view can be overruled using the already existing statistics of how psychological factors cause perpetration. Individuals who want to experience the feeling of power and control will undoubtedly focus on cybercrime as an alternative to traditional crimes. Whereas some will commit computer related for fun, out of boredom, the thrill involved and peer pressure, a right minded individual will avoid it at all cost since they are aware that it will in one way or another lead to pain to someone else. In fact, mental incapacity is strongly exhibited to youths who will cause suffering to their peers-people they know and interact with everybody.

O'Brien, M., & Yar, M. Criminology: The key concepts. London: Routledge, (2008).

The contemporary world utilizes a multi-dimensional approach to the concepts, institution, and approaches fundamental to the study of crime. Issues advanced in this context include but not limited to policing and the justice system, types of crime, terrorism, war crimes, social issues and criminal psychology.

Although much has been done in the US in addressing cybercrime based on the above-stated concepts, a lot needs to be done because cybercrime is far from being understood leave alone proper combating. The education system needs to be fully involved in socializing the young generation into a healthy lifestyle amidst the vigorous technological advancements. Addressing the root cause of crime is the best way towards achieving a crime free society hence taking a similar approach with cybercrime will reduce it greatly if not total elimination. Ensuring that at least a general concept of addressing the root cause of cybercrime in all preventive measures employed to protect US cyber systems will end any conflicts playing a part in causation of cybercrime namely societal, personal, political, intrastate, and interstate conflicts.

Ruan, K. Cybercrime and cloud forensics: Applications for investigation processes. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference, 2013.

Our infrastructure is structured around computers. Individuals with malicious can somehow cripple health, transport and communication sectors effortlessly. There has been a shift from human labor to computers in the wake of modernization and globalization. Since most crimes leave trails behind them, it’s important to know how to unearth these trails in the process of investigation. Investigation here does not only involve a perpetrators computer or digital gadget but entails relating all factors at hand to determine any information network that could have been used as a secondary tool.

Computer forensics have been very effective so far given the high level of knowledge and technicality involved. A considerable amount of data is able to be analyzed in a fast and efficient way. Further, more valuable data can be retrieved and be used in courts as evidence against perpetrators. Nonetheless, computer forensic analysts have been criticized for constructing findings in such a way that it’s admissible in court.

Your Annotated Bibliography was good. Your sampling of the 14 references you chose will provide a solid foundation for your literature review. As I indicate in Week 6’s assignment and announcement, your annotations on the authors or articles that you chose will form a part of your lit review. This annotated bibliography is NOT a Literature Review. The next part is LINKING the themes that you identified in your annotations. Each article will have links or common themes and as your write, you are likely to develop new or additional ideas of interest. Linking your reviews is accomplished by the theme of your paper and linking similar threads. I like that each of your annotated themes supports your topic and provides a firm foundation that is rooted in the literature. Remember, you can also drill down into each bibliography for further resources. You should aim for 25 to 50 references total for your final paper. I look forward to seeing your initial Lit Review!!

Chris

Criteria	Exemplary 16-20	Accomplished 11-15	Developing 6-10	Beginning 0-5	Total
Synthesis of Knowledge	17
Foundation of Knowledge	17
Application of Knowledge	16
Organization of Ideas/Format		15
Writing and Research Skill		15
Total	50	30			80