ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

 

US POLICIES ON TWO TRANSNATIONAL CRIMES, ILLICIT DRUG

TRAFFICKING AND CYBER-LAUNDERING, WILL NOT SECURE THE

HOMELAND FROM TERRORIST THREATS

A Master Thesis

Submitted to the Faculty

of

American Public University

by

First Name Last Name

In Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree

of

Master of Arts

April 2012

American Public University

Charles Town, WV

 

1   

Week 5 – Annotated Bibliography Albanese, J. (2012). Deciphering the Linkages between Organized Crime and

Transnational Crime. Journal of International Affairs, Vol 66(Issue 1), pp. 1-16

The root conduct of both organized crime and transnational crime parallels each

other according to studies. Additional, there are distinct differences between

transnational crimes and international crimes in that transnational crime are those crimes

leading to or resulting in individual profit. One of three elements, if not two or all three,

may exists during the identification of transnational crimes. The elements are illegal

substances, the arrangement for illegal labor, and or penetration of either commercial or

government businesses operations.

In accordance to the literature, international crimes involves crimes against

humanity that sometimes includes several countries. There are three classifications of

transnational crimes, Provision of Illicit Goods; Provision of Illicit Services; and

Infiltration of Business or Government. Studies have shown that the existence of

transnational crime is nothing new. These crimes have in fact existed for many decades

and there has been little to no change in them; but, the innovative technology has advance

the means in which these crimes are executed.

Boyum, David and Peter Reuter. (2005). An Analytic Assessment of U.S. Drug Policy.

Washington, DC. Aei Press.

Policies targeting the prohibition of drugs are universally ineffective. The

constant development of illicit drugs and its distributions are staying ahead of policies

and counterdrugs programs designed to combat such activity. Although drugs growth in

quantity are geographically limited, the sophistication involved in establishing an illicit

 

2   

transnational drug trafficking network makes the fight against these crimes more

challenging.

US policies along with tougher laws will not materially reduce the use or illegal

sale of drugs. The study within this literature exclusively discusses the need for drug

treatment services that is in short supply. The ability to treat drug users is a key aspect in

fighting the war on drugs; however, some US policies do not address the root issue or

concern. The absence of US policies to target this area is a gap requiring Law Makers

and Politicians attention.

Brennan, J. (2012) United States Counter Terrorism Cyber Law and Policy, Enabling or

Disabling? Retrieved from http://nsfp.web.unc.edu/files/2012/09/Brennan_united-states- counter-terrorism-cyber-law-and-policy.pdf

This study was conducted to determine if US counter terrorism cyber laws and

policies were enabling or disabling government initiatives to counter the fight on

terrorism in cyberspace. There appear to be no optimization on the use of national

counter terrorism assets according to the study; to include, a lack of policies update that

are designed to effectively support government officials.

Although there are US strategies such as the 2011 International Strategy for Cyber

Space, the study emphasizes the need to initiate a comprehensive sourcing for domestic

and international law. The failure to take these actions will continue to hinder the

professionals from performing their jobs effectively whom are the very ones the strategy

is designed to support. The gap that is created resulting from inconsistencies between

national security, counter terrorism and its cyber strategies, and the laws and policies

currently established enables terrorist organizations to occupy and operate cybercrimes

successfully; including, cyber laundering.

 

3   

Caulkins, Jonathan P. and Mark A. R. Kleiman. (2008). Drug Policy in Understanding America:

The Anatomy of a Exceptional Nation, eds Peter H. Schuck &James Q. Wilson, 563-953. New York: Public Affairs.

The US fight on illicit drugs has led to more arrest and imprisonments than its

European partners. The US parallels countries like Columbia and Nigeria in comparison

to its severe drug problem. The literature focuses many efforts on comparing the US with

other countries throughout the world to highlight the use of illicit drugs. The results of

studies performed are anything less than stunning.

Combating the trafficking of transnational illicit drug exhausts many US

resources that include equipment, money, and people. Before the US could actually

identify the chaos associated with its leading illicit drug, cocaine, Americans embraced

the illicit drug before its exposures. Other countries simply watch the effects that it took

throughout the US before trying the drug. To this extent, other countries did not have the

capability in availability for cocaine. The US have large Colombian immigrants

communities in Florida and New York and with so much legal trade occurring in these

areas, the literature suggests that the capability to effectively hide the illegal trafficking of

cocaine is almost seamless.

Paraschiv, Gilipowski W. (2013). Conceptualizing Transnational Organized Crime.

Economic, Management, and Financial Markets, Vol 8(Issue 2), pp. 173-178, ISSN 1842-3191

The article provides an understanding to how the international community realizes

that transnational organized crime is a common threat while highlighting the division in

international law and policies. Additionally, the article highlights transnational organized

crime having developed in various countries throughout the world; subsequently, making

 

4   

this emergence a phenomenon. The literature illustrates the political influence

throughout the international community that makes US policies vulnerable. For an

example, Asia’s footprint consists of multiple loop holes added with corruption and a

lack of effective governance. Without a clear definition or understanding to distinguish

between gangs and organized crime, the political initiatives could have challenges. If

there is not an objective to influence politicians to establish judicial authority at the

national level to combat organized crime, many efforts to minimize this baseline that

influences transnational crime will be doomed at the start.

The size and growth of transnational crime cannot truly be determined because

the crime groups often establish and maintain contingent ties with each other. Worthy to

note is the hierarchical structure described in this article that clearly articulates the

complexity in comprehending the international community’s ability to fight and stop

transnational crime, the global threat impact of transnational crime, and the business and

economic dimensions of these crimes.

Rollins, J., & Wyler, L. (2013). Terrorism and transnational crime: Foreign

policy issues for congress. Retrieved from http://fas.org/sgp/crs/terror/R41004.pdf

The Congressional Research Service describes various patterns that parallels to

interaction among terrorist groups leading to transnational security issues. In recognition

of these activities, the US Congress continues to respond with policies in attempts to

remain abreast with the rapid changing environment. US global security interests are

threatened by transnational crimes and to this extent, in 2011 President Obama issued the

Strategy to Combat Transnational Organized Crime. Although, the US security

strategies maybe multidimensional in focusing on citizen security and dismantling illicit

 

5   

networks, the support from governments throughout the international community is

needed.

The complexity to establish policies to support the people to carry out strategic

objectives is brought to the surface in this study, starting at the top of the political stage.

In Congress charge to evaluate the current policies and practices in determining if the US

is synchronized in effectively fighting transnational crimes, the committee realizes that

the conceptualization of transnational crime will require interagency coordination with

international cooperation. Adding to the challenge of loyalty and total commitment is

geographic regions and politics. Clapper’s testimony to Congress in 2012 emphasized

that illicit networks have been fundamental in the growth of transnational crimes that has

led to profitable terrorist networks; subsequently, increasing the threats to US national

security.

Snow, G. (2011). Federal Bureau of Investigation: The cybersecurity threat.

Retrieved from http://www.fbi.gov/news/testimony/cybersecurity-responding-to-the- threat-of-cyber-crime-and-terrorism

This article focuses on the cyber threats to the US private sector, supply chain,

and critical infrastructure. The article suggests that the US critical infrastructure will not

be 100% intrusion free; thereby, always being available. The Federal Bureau of

Investigations (FBI) describes the greatest cyber threats to be the illegal acquiring of

assets, sensitive data such as economic information or military classified intelligence.

There are tremendous economic losses resulting from cyber threats. Although,

the FBI constantly changes its methods in dealing with cybercrimes, so does terrorist

organizations. Innovation of new cyber technology improves national and international

relations. Unfortunately, this same advance technology becomes available or can be gain

 

6   

via illicit means by terrorist organizations. The article clearly make a point to address the

theft of intellectual property and supply chain issues that can be interrupted by terrorist

organizations. The threat, although specifically discussed targeting US interests, is not an

isolated threat for one nation. The growing cyber threat is an international issue with

improvements in the availability and the ingenuity placed in creating malicious software

that makes current national security policies an issue. Transnational crimes such as cyber

laundering can be hidden through multiple layers of cyber access points created by

automation increase requirements. Another issue is that with internal support given to

adversaries by recruiting business and intellectual individuals, as suggested by the article,

the damages caused by cybercrimes will continue to grow, making it impractical to

calculate.

Wyler, L. & Cook, N. (2009). Illegal Drug Trade in Africa: Trends and U.S. Policy

Retrieved from http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40838.pdf

The Congressional Research Service study focusing on the illegal drug trade in

Africa has direct ties to the US policies designed to combat illicit transnational drugs

trafficking. The majority of the illicit drug growth and trafficking in Africa is directed

towards South America and European countries according to the study. However, other

illegal products such as heroin and precursors required to make illicit drugs do enter the

various borders of the US.

The issue that is revealed in the literature is the threat to US policy and its

interests both at home and abroad. Because of the enormous illegal drug production

environments throughout the western portion of Africa, US policies combating

transnational illicit drug trafficking faces an uphill battle. The challenge becomes even

 

7   

more complex when terrorist organizations occupy various parts of the region for safe

havens. Additionally, the revelations of US policies being in its early stages or formative

stages are exposed during this study. The study further suggests that there is not a solid

commitment or coordination on roles from both the US and the international

community’s counternarcotic agencies.