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3.1 Distinguishing Between Scholarly, News, Trade, and PopularSources
As you start the work of the second phase of your research, it is important to understand the difference between two major types of sources:scholarly sources and news, trade, and popular sources. While each kind of source can contain useful information and interesting perspectives,they have different kinds of authority, which determine how you can use them in academic research.
Scholarly Sources
Scholarly sources are produced by professional researchers seeking to advance or evaluate knowledge, who submit their work for peer review.As you learned in Chapter 1, peer review certifies the rigor of the research process and the reasonableness of the researcher's argument andinterpretations. In order to be scholarly, both journal articles and books need to be peer reviewed. Most databases of sources will provide youwith the option to restrict your searches to scholarly sources. But if not, you can recognize scholarly sources by asking yourself the followingquestions:
© National Geographic Society/Corbis
Try to seek out reliable sources, such as those written by scholars orexperts in a given subject area. Sir Isaac Newton's work in physics andmathematics has been a reliable source for many important scholars inthe scientific field.
1. Is the writer of the source a credentialed professional researcher writing inhis or her field of expertise?
2. Has the source been successfully reviewed by peers?
3. Is the purpose of the source to advance or evaluate knowledge?
4. Does the source use an extensive citation system to document its ownsources of evidence and its engagement with other researchers?
5. Is the source published in an academic journal or by an academic oruniversity press?
If you answered "yes" to the questions on this list, then it is likely that thesource is scholarly. If not, then likely you have a news, trade, or popular source.
News, Trade, and Popular Sources
News, trade, and popular sources are produced by journalists, freelance writers,columnists, magazine writers, or practitioners of a trade. Unlike scholarlysources, they are not subject to scholarly peer review by credentialed experts,although they may be subject to editorial review or review by other industrypractitioners. News sources tend to be published in newspapers or magazines such as the Los Angeles Times, Time Magazine, or U.S. News &Weekly Report. Written by journalists, their purpose is to report and analyze current events. Trade sources tend to be published in journals ormagazines intended to be read by executives or practitioners working in a specific industry. For example, the trade magazine R&D is read byresearch and development executives, project managers, scientists, and engineers. While trade sources provide useful information to theirreaders, they tend to reflect the perspectives of the industry they serve, rather than seeking to advance or evaluate knowledge. Popularsources are written to educate or entertain, by writers who often are not experts in the field. They tend not to use specialized language orrequire any previous knowledge to read. Magazines such as People and Reader's Digest are examples of popular sources.
Types of Sources
There are hundreds and millions of websites. They can becategorized as popular, scholarly, or trade. Information comesfrom primary, secondary, and tertiary sources.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. In your own words, how would you define what comprises ascholarly source as opposed to a popular source?
2. Considering your potential paper topic, what are thebenefits and/or drawbacks of each source type?
You will be able to recognize whether you are working with a news, trade, or popular source by asking yourself the following questions:
1. Is the writer a journalist, a freelancer, a columnist, a practitioner of a trade, or a magazine staffer?
2. Is the purpose of the source to report news or opinion; to earn money; to advertise a product or service; to educate a general audience;to persuade readers to hold an opinion, support a policy, or make a judgment; or to entertain?
3. Does the source make assertions without providing readers with a way to verify its sources for themselves?
4. Is the source a publication dedicated to news and opinion? A trade magazine or journal? A popular magazine?
If you answered "yes" to the questions on this list, then it is likely that the source is a news, trade, or popular source. Table 3.1 summarizes themain characteristics of each type of source.
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Table 3.1: Scholarly and popular sources |
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Scholarly |
News, Trade, or Popular |
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Writer |
A credentialed professional researcher writing inhis or her field of expertise. |
A journalist, a freelancer, acolumnist or pundit, a practitionerof a trade, or a magazine staffer. |
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Peer reviewed |
Yes |
No |
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Purpose |
To advance or evaluate knowledge. |
To report news or opinion; to earnmoney; to advertise a product orservice; to educate a generalaudience; to persuade readers tohold an opinion, support a policy,or make a judgment; to entertain. |
|
Citation system |
Extensive. Used to document evidence andengagement with other sources. |
Absent or minimal. Readers haveno or minimal ways of verifyingassertions. |
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Publication type |
Academic journal. Book published by anacademic press. |
News or opinion. Trade magazine.Popular magazine. |
Keep in mind that if you misidentify what type of source you have, you will undermine your credibility as a reliable researcher, you may misuseyour source, and your arguments will be less persuasive.
Using Scholarly and Popular Sources
Now that you know how to distinguish between scholarly sources and popular sources, it is important to understand how to use each kind ofsource in your research. Whether scholarly or popular, sources need to be credible to be used in your research. Credible sources, as wediscussed in Chapter 1, offer relevant evidence for their claims and are offered by well-informed people motivated to pursue the truth. Sincescholarly sources are designed to be credible from the start, you are on firm ground using them in a variety of ways in your research. Be sure,however, to determine whether the researcher is writing about his or her field of special expertise. Someone who holds a Ph.D. in history, forexample, likely does not have the expertise to produce scholarly research on the environmental causes of Honeybee Colony Collapse Disorder.We will explore more sophisticated ways to use scholarly research later in this chapter. But for now, you should understand that they canprovide you with:
· Authoritative information and data;
· Important concepts and methods to use to analyze and interpret data;
· Credible, valid, and reliable arguments to consider and to which to respond;
· Names of other scholars working in the fields and the titles of their publications; and
· Criticisms and evaluations of other researchers' published work.
In order for popular sources to be credible, you must assess whether they are biased or motivated by something other than pursuit of the truthbefore you use them. You should not use sources that are written primarily to advertise a product or service or to entertain. Likewise, youshould not use sources written by writers whose deeply held beliefs are affecting their ability to meet the scholarly standards of fairness,accuracy, open-mindedness, and, therefore, their ability to consider alternative explanations and points of view. If you do determine thatpopular sources are credible, you can use them in limited ways in your research, mostly at the beginning of your project, when you are tryingto get up to speed in a new area of learning.
You can reasonably use popular sources to:
· Represent the conventional wisdom or popular view of a topic, which your research will evaluate and replace with a more scholarly view;
· Get a provisional overview of the issues involved in your topic, with the expectation that as you learn more, you will replace this overviewwith a better one drawn from your reading in scholarly sources;
· Get a provisional overview of any history or context that might be relevant to your topic, with the expectation that you will replace thisoverview with a better one drawn from your reading in scholarly sources;
· Locate the names of some expert researchers working in fields relevant to your topic;
· Learn which fields of study or academic disciplines are relevant to your topic;
· Learn some of the specialized vocabulary that researchers use to discuss your topic;
· Help you ask questions about your topic and determine what else you need to learn; and
· Provide you with ideas about what kinds of statistics, data, or cases you might need to find to be qualified to write on the topic.
A final word on scholarly and popular sources: For the research project on which you are working, you will need to work extensively andcritically with scholarly sources. As you learn more about your topic and start to think more carefully about the questions to which you areseeking answers, you should spend more time working with scholarly sources and less with popular sources.
3.2 BEAM: A Commonsense Way of Thinking About Sources
In order to design the most useful set of sources for your project, you must have sources that will meet your needs as a writer, as well as onesthat meet your information needs. Traditionally, students have been taught that they need "primary" sources and "secondary" sources. But, asBoston University writing professor Joseph Bizup (2008) argues, the traditional "primary" source/"secondary" source language is too abstract totell new researchers very much about what to look for in sources. Bizup replaces primary and secondary source types with everyday terms thatdescribe how writers use sources in their texts: to provide background, offer exhibits, engage in arguments, and describe methods. Bizupcollects these uses in the mnemonic BEAM, shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Joseph Bizup's BEAM
The BEAM method of employing sources.
Source: Adapted from Bizup, J. (2008). BEAM: A rhetorical vocabulary for teaching research-based writing. RhetoricReview, 27(1), 72–86.
BEAM is useful because it can help you assess your set of sources to see how well they meet your needs as a writer. Writers of research essaysseek to persuade readers of the truth of a proposition by offering context-sensitive, evidence-supported claims, careful analysis, and plausibleinterpretations. You will need to assure your reader that:
· You understand the larger context in which your work is situated,
· Your claims are well-supported by evidence,
· You have interpreted your evidence reliably using sound methods and relevant concepts, and
· You have considered the views, analyses, and interpretations of other researchers working in the field.
The "B" in BEAM: Background Sources
Because you will not be the first researcher working on your topic, you will need sources that enable you to formulate your research questionsagainst a background of significant facts and previous ideas on the subject. According to Bizup, background sources provide "materials whoseclaims a writer accepts as fact, whether these ‘facts' are taken as general information or deployed as evidence to support the writer's ownassertions" (p. 75). Background sources enable you to provide context, show how other researchers and public commentators have seen theproblem or issue under study, and summarize the current state of research on your topic.
A writer relies on backgroundsources to provide context and tohelp delineate an initiating puzzleor question. Writers expect readersto accept them as authoritative.
They also enable you to prepare your reader to understand where your specific line of inquiry fitsin the larger research conversation. By demonstrating that you have read and understood theexisting literature, they also help you establish your qualifications for writing about your topic. Inthe following passage from her research project description, Emma is deploying her sources asbackground. In just two sentences, she establishes the scholarly foundation on which herresearch stands:
Recent work by sociologists of technology argues that teens' use of social network sitessuch as Facebook has much more to do with their developmental needs as emergingadults. According to researchers such as boyd (2008), Livingstone (2008), and Stald (2008), teens use social network sites to seekstatus, experiment with identities, and separate from parental influence.
At this point in her essay, Emma expects readers simply to accept the views of these researchers as authoritative. That is why she providestheir credentials ("sociologists of technology") and references to their scholarly papers.
The "E" in BEAM: Exhibits
Because readers of research essays expect your claims to be supported with evidence, you will need to illustrate your ideas and judgmentsusing concrete data, cases, or examples. Bizup calls these materials "exhibits" (p. 75). The term "exhibit" is most often heard in the world ofcourtrooms. In criminal courts, prosecutors offer exhibits (evidence) to a jury in order to make a case that a particular perpetrator is guilty. Inorder to persuade the jury to see the exhibit as evidence of guilt, the prosecutor will need to analyze and interpret the exhibit to help the juryunderstand its larger significance, or to enable them to see it as suggestive of motivations.
Writers analyze and interpretexhibits to make them significantand meaningful to readers. Writersexpect readers to think along withtheir analysis and interpretation,with the understanding thatreaders will think critically andskeptically about the writer'sanalysis and interpretation.
Like prosecutors, research writers offer exhibits to readers as suggestive objects to think with andabout on their way to drawing a conclusion. Because exhibits do not speak for themselves, anddifferent viewers might see them differently, writers must analyze, explain, and interpret themfor their readers.
To help you better understand what an exhibit is and how researchers use them in their writing,consider an example from a piece of research Emma found on how young adults relate to theirmobile phones. Researcher Gitte Stald (2008) asked 16-year-old students to write essays called"My Mobile and Me." Then she analyzed the essays as exhibits in support of her thesis thatmobile phones are more than just communications tools—they are also personal developmenttools. Here is the passage with Stald's thesis underlined, her exhibit marked in bold, and heranalysis and interpretation double-underlined:
We should consider the meaning of "mobile" as . . . being ready for change, ready to go innew directions. One of the sixteen-year-old participants . . . had been considering the ontological meaning of "mobile" andlooked it up in her mother's dictionary. . . . She found that it said: "Movable, agile, able to be moved or transported easilyand fast; ready to march, ready for battle." She was somewhat surprised by the last two translations of "mobile," andconcluded that in fact that is exactly what she is with her mobile [phone] at hand: "I am easily accessed and I am movable; Iam agile and transport myself easily and quite fast; I am always ready to receive a message or a call; but best of all I amready to march, ready for battle! . . ." This girl interprets mobile as more than a matter of physical movement between locations,she thinks of herself as physically on the move, supported by her mobile [phone], but at the same time she applies the militaryterminology to her own situation and her interest in moving forward in life and battling for herself in more than physical terms.The mobile [phone] facilitates her social mobility and readiness to communicate. Exchange between friends is an important partof the development of identity. . . . In this context, being movable, agile and ready to march means being ready to move as aperson, too. (Stald, 2008, pp. 145–146)
Stald's exhibit is presented in enough detail so that a reader can quickly see its relevance to her thesis. Notice also that she does not assumethat the girl's essay speaks for itself. Stald follows her exhibit with analysis and interpretation, calling readers' attention to the keywords andsignificant aspects of the exhibit.
The "A" in BEAM: Argument Sources
Throughout this book, we have asked you to see research as a conversation. When you read and write research, you are in dialogue with otherresearchers, with whom you must agree or disagree, and on whose work you build or refute. So when you look for sources, you need to lookfor sources that offer you a perspective on the topic. Such sources are called argument sources. Argument sources provide you with "claims . .. [to] affirm, dispute, refine, or extend" (Bizup, 2008, p. 76). Commenting on the usefulness and limits of other researchers' claims (instead ofjust borrowing their data) not only helps you refine your own view as you account for the views of others who may disagree with you; it alsohelps you anticipate potential criticisms of your interpretation, and to develop the sophistication of your claims.
Writers engage the arguments(claims, support, and reasoning) ofother writers. Readers test,evaluate, and consider theimplications of a writer's argument.
In the following passage from Emma's emerging essay, she wants to criticize and refine the ideasof John Palfrey, a writer who believes that today's technologically connected teens arecategorically different from the teens of previous generations. Emma starts by conveying Palfrey'sidea in a fair and balanced manner, and at the same time signals her disagreement, which ishighlighted in bold:
Even John Palfrey (2008) admits that teens today "establish and communicate theiridentities simultaneously in the physical and digital worlds" (p. 20). Unfortunately inboiling things down, Palfrey misplaces the emphasis, writing "the net effect of the digitalage—paradoxically—is to decrease [a girl's] ability to control her social identity and how others perceive her" (pp. 19–20).However, while the Internet has made the adolescent maturation process more public, it has done little to change how muchcontrol adolescents have over the essential process of how they establish and manage their identities. Teens have always hadto negotiate their identities in a dynamic social environment where how they are viewed by others shapes their sense of self.
By using transition tags, such as "unfortunately" and "however," Emma alerts her reader to see her perspective as an argument that countersPalfrey's view.
The "M" in BEAM: Method Sources
"Writers follow methods" (Bizup,2008, p. 76). Readers assess theutility and influence of methods.
Some of the persuasiveness of a research essay rests on the assurance that the researcher hasfollowed a reasonable method of finding, analyzing, and interpreting exhibits. Researchersdevelop reliable ways of working with data and cases to draw reasonable conclusions. Accordingto Bizup, method sources "can offer a set of key terms, lay out a particular procedure, or furnisha general model or perspective" (p. 76). They ensure that the researcher's general approach andfoundational concepts are sound. When you want to know whether another researcher's claim isstatistically significant, you are asking about his or her methods. When you analyze a researcher's survey to see which populations it represents,and which it does not, you are assessing his or her methods. As a researcher, you should not only adopt and follow a method for analyzing andinterpreting data, but you should also reflect on the implications of your own methods, and assess the utility and influence of otherresearchers' methodological choices on their conclusions.
For the purposes of your research, your method is a systematic critical synthesis of previous research called a literature review.
As you use BEAM to choose a set of sources that will enable you to meet your needs as a writer, keep in mind that you may need multipleexamples of all four kinds of sources, and that any single source likely provides you with more than one kind of material for your project.
3.3 Finding Sources
In our experience, student researchers who struggle to find sources do so because:
1. They are searching somewhat randomly for "general information" about a topic, and/or
2. They are not aware of the important differences between searching web portals such as Google and searching the subscription databasesfound in most academic libraries.
In this section, you will learn how to overcome these problems and find the sources you need.
Starting Research in a New Field
Starting research on a topic in an entirely new field presents researchers with a significant problem—namely, they do not know enough aboutthe topic or field to know what they need to learn. In other words, they do not yet know the questions that other researchers have asked.They do not know the specialized vocabulary that has evolved. They do not yet know what aspect of the topic on which they want to work. Itis very likely that as an undergraduate, you are facing the same problem with your current project. It seems natural that the first thing that youshould do is to fire up your browser, log in to a database, and search away to find something, anything, to get your feet wet. But that is acounterproductive way to start acquiring the basic knowledge that you will need in order to find a useful set of sources and frame a set ofquestions.
Blend Images/SuperStock
Sources can be found in various ways, such as searching for keywordsonline or using databases provided by an academic library.
Instead, you need to look for a short overview of the topic that will orient youto some of the driving concerns of the field. If you are conducting research fora college course, it is likely that some of your course materials can provide youwith at least some of what you need. Course textbooks are especially goodresources for surveying the breadth of a subject and acquiring the specializedlanguage of the field. Mining them for concepts and exhibits can provide youboth with search terms you can use right away and clues for developing others.Also consult lecture notes, handouts and slides, and assigned or recommendedreadings. If your readings are scholarly, review the sources listed on theirreferences pages to locate the names of researchers working in your field andkey concepts. Once you are searching the databases, try a few searches thatinclude the term "review of the literature" with your topic to see if you can findan article that summarizes and evaluates recent research in the field.
Besides looking at course materials, you can also consult specializedencyclopedias, subject-specific dictionaries, and topic bibliographies. Thereference sections of most academic libraries stock a wide range of thesehelpful orienting texts. Many libraries also provide librarian-prepared subject guides to often-used fields to help you identify the most usefulorienting texts, bibliographic tools, and databases. Fields with subject guides include anthropology, company/industry research, criminal justiceand law enforcement, early childhood education, heathcare administration, and literature. You can find these and more subject guides intutorials on your university or local library websites. Often, you can also call, email, or chat online with a librarian for help deciding which onesmight be of most use to you.
Assessing Your Research Needs
Once you have a basic overview of your topic, the first step in finding a coherent set of useful sources is to assess your research needs. WithBizup's BEAM mnemonic, you know that you will need (a) background sources, (b) exhibit sources, (c) argument sources, and (d) methodsources. That is useful as far as it goes, but it does not go far enough to help you choose the right databases for your specific project or tosearch them effectively. If you have completed the project design work in Chapter 2 (gathering an overview of your topic using coursematerials, subject-specific encyclopedias and dictionaries, and topic-specific bibliographies), you have already performed some of thepreliminary steps necessary to assess your research needs. In particular, the initial set of questions you wrote will be a primary resource foryour first targeted foray into the literature. If you are still in the design phase of your project, do not worry. This section will help you get yourproject started well.
Developing a Set of Research Questions
The key to finding useful sources for your project is to approach a database session with good questions in hand. In Chapter 2, you learned thatresearch projects tend to have two different types of questions: essential questions that prompt you to investigate perplexing phenomenon orsolve complex problems, and supporting questions that guide you to find the material you need to answer your essential questions. You alsolearned that good questions should have a specific scope, which means they should clearly specify which populations, locations, time periods,subtopics, and theories are relevant to your question. If you have not written any essential or supporting research questions, you will need todo so before approaching the database. Go back to Section 2.3 and work through the activities to develop your project definition, topic, andresearch questions.
Constructing Effective Search Queries
Once you have good research questions, you must learn how to use them to query the database. If you have a lot of experience searching theInternet, you likely use natural language—language that looks and sounds like the language we use in everyday situations—to search for whatyou want to find. The following search queries are written in natural language:
· "What is the best Chinese restaurant in St. Paul?"
· "How can I catch more fish?"
· "What are some ways to help my child who does not like to read?"
On the Internet, natural language searches tend to work well enough to allow you to find what you want without too much effort. But if youquery a research database using natural language, you will likely find that you get few or no results. What is more, the few results you get maybe irrelevant because research databases are organized using the same categories and logic that organize the content of research libraries. As aresult, databases "speak" a language that allows you to search and find more than just the specific title for which you were looking. It allowsyou to find clusters of related content as well. So in order to search academic library catalogs and academic databases well, you have to learnhow to construct searches that the system can process.
Basic Research Tips
Keywords are nouns and objects related to the topic. Uniqueidentifiers such as names, titles, and dates yield the best results.Scholarly sources can be found through library databases. Searchengines provide sources for general queries.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What are five keywords that you might search in relation toyour potential topic(s)?
2. What databases are available for you to search at youruniversity or library?
Search construction involves analyzing your research question to identify potential search terms, refining the question by specifying therelationship between key terms, and finding synonyms for keywords that may be too imprecise to generate sources that are relevant to yourproject. To learn how to construct effective search queries, let us discuss each part of this process by analyzing the last research question onour list: "What are some ways to help my child who does not like to read?"
Step 1: Identify keywords or concepts in the research question.
Likely two keywords leap out at you: child, read. So you write them down on a research log form like the one shown in the Sample ResearchLog. While you could go directly to a multipurpose database and enter those two terms in a keyword search, you would likely get thousands ofresults. Only a few of them would be closely relevant to your question because there are many different possible relationships between yourtwo keywords, and you have not yet specified the relationship between them. Without specifying the relationship between them, the databasecannot tell if you are an elementary school teacher wanting sources on how to teach very young children to learn to read for the first time, amemoirist writing about the value of her time spent reading as a child, or a concerned parent wanting information on how to motivate youradolescent boy to enjoy reading more.
Step 2: Specify the relationship between keywords.
The first thing to do is to go back to the original question and see whether you can find additional keywords that better specify the relationshipbetween child and read. Here is the question again: "What are some ways to help my child who doesn't like to read?" A second look at thequestion reveals two additional key phrases that indicate a very specific relationship between child and read: We have a child who does not liketo read, and a parent who wants ways to help him or her. Notice how this reformulation of the question brings in a new keyword: parent. Byfinding the additional phrases that specify the relationship between our keywords, we have arrived at a better understanding of what it is weare looking for. Developing and refining your question is not only a key strategy for generating more productive search combinations; it alsohelps you better understand your research needs. If you are lucky, it can help you develop some other closely related research questions.
Step 3: Refine imprecise keywords by finding synonyms.
Adding new keywords and phrases to the search seems like it should help the database return sources that more specifically address yourconcerns, and to a degree it will. But you will not find everything written on the topic, and you may find nothing at all. This is because two ofthe primary keywords (child and parent) have multiple synonyms. Furthermore, two of the key phrases (ways to help and does not like) expressrelationships in everyday language that expert researchers would find too imprecise to use in their articles. Since researchers try to uselanguage carefully and precisely to represent accurately the problems, data, and solutions on which they are working, you will need to producea list of more precise synonyms that researchers might use for each of your keywords or phrases. Remember, different writers might choosedifferent terms to convey the same idea. So you will need to develop and test several different combinations of search terms to locate all ofthe most relevant sources for your query.
Let us continue with our example by refining our imprecise terms—ways to help and does not like. You can use a dictionary or thesaurus tohelp find synonyms, but you may get better, more efficient results by using the materials you found earlier during your grounding research inspecialized dictionaries and encyclopedias to guide your synonym development. Here is what a standard thesaurus suggests as potentialsynonyms for ways: habits, conduct, customs, behavior, traditions. None of these terms gets at what you want to find out. In everydaylanguage, you are looking for advice or techniques to motivate your child. In your grounding research, researchers call teaching techniquesmethods or pedagogies. Here is the cluster of terms we have developed for ways to help: advice, techniques, methods, pedagogies. By steppingthrough a similar synonym development process, we can replace does not like with reluctant, resistant, unenthusiastic, averse, unwilling.
Child might seem like a specific enough term, but there are several others that researchers might use. Youth, adolescent, teen, tween, juvenile,and kids are just some of the possibilities. Considering that more boys than girls seem to become reluctant readers, your list should probablyinclude gendered terms for child as well: boy, son, young man, male.
Research Log
After all this question development, we can rewrite our original question in a much more specific way:
"What methods, techniques, or pedagogies can parents use to motivate teenage male reluctant readers?"
With such a specific question, you will find a reasonably small number of sources to review, and the majority of sources you locate should berelevant.
Choosing Databases
Once you have identified keywords and phrases and their variants, you are ready to approach a research database to do some searching.Before you can search, you need to decide which databases to choose to search (see Figure 3.2 for factors that can help you choose anappropriate database). Many libraries have made it simpler for you to know which ones to choose by listing databases by subject anddescribing contents. They have also provided subject guides to reliable resources for several disciplines, including anthropology, company andindustry research, criminal justice and law enforcement, early childhood education, healthcare administration, and literature. These subjectguides contain useful database recommendations as well as the names of useful subject specific resources, including reference books,dictionaries, encyclopedias, and more.
Database Categories
For the purposes of your research project, you need to be able to distinguish between two major categories of database. The first, known as ageneral purpose database (or multidisciplinary database), is often a good place to start your research because it indexes many different fieldsor disciplines. But while this type of database offers breadth, it can sacrifice depth. In order to bring you a wide sample of research being donein so many fields, general purpose databases tend to focus on the major journals in the field. EBSCOhost's Academic Search Premier andProQuest are good examples of general purpose databases widely used by college students.
Figure 3.2: Choosing a database
On the other hand, subject-specific databases (also known as field-specific databases) aim to represent the full range of a particular field orsubject. If you do not find what you need in a general database, or if you suspect there is more to the topic than is covered in a generaldatabase, you should consult a subject-specific database such as Westlaw (law and business), Sage Journals Online (social sciences),PyschArticles (psychology), ERIC (education), PubMED (medicine and healthcare), or the MLA International Bibliography (literature). It isimportant to understand that no one database can serve all your research needs. You will need to try your searches in multiple databases todiscover the best sources for your project. Be sure to record on your research log which databases provide you with the best results for each ofyour searches.
Further Considerations When Choosing a Database
As you continue to consider which databases to choose for your research, the following questions could influence your choice:
1. Does the database provide full-text access to sources or only abstracts or citations? Full text is obviously best, but finding an abstract orcitation can be useful. If you find a citation or abstract of a useful article, be sure to record the full citation information so you can searchfor the full text in another database.
2. How current are the publications indexed in the database? How many years into the past does the database index? The deeper and morerecent the coverage the better.
3. Is access to the contents of the database free or fee-based? Remember, many fee-based databases that you find online are free to youwhen accessed through your university or local library.
4. Does the database provide for electronic delivery of sources and citations? If not, contact a librarian to learn how to request that anelectronic copy of a source be sent to you.
Searching Databases
Unlike search engines such as Google, Bing, or Yahoo!, which use keyword searches by default, academic databases work best when you specifythe kind of search you want to conduct. There are three major kinds of database searches you can conduct: author/title searches, keywordsearches, and subject searches. Which search you choose depends on (a) whether you are searching for unknown sources on a topic or aspecific article or book written by a specific author, (b) what you know about what you're trying to find, (c) how specifically or broadly yourtopic is defined, and (d) how field- or discipline-specific your topic or research needs are. Table 3.2 is provided as a reference to help youdetermine what type of search you should conduct. Each search type is discussed in more detail in the following sections.
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Table 3.2: Database search types |
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Use Author/Title Search when: · You know the name of the author you want to find. · You want to find additional articles by a known writer. · You know the title of an article or book you want to find. · You know the title of a journal, periodical, or book series that frequently contains sources relevant to yourtopic. |
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Use Keyword Search when: · You have a specific research question to answer. · Your topic has keywords that are distinctive, new, or field specific. · Your topic can only be specified with multiple keywords (methods AND motivate AND adolescent ANDreluctant readers). · You have multiple synonyms that you want to search simultaneously (children OR kids OR teens ORadolescents). · More than one field or discipline is relevant to your topic (adolescent psychology AND reading instruction) |
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Use Subject Search when: · Your topic is broad, you are conducting grounding research, and you don't yet have specific researchquestions to answer. · You are looking for sources about a person rather than by a person. · A keyword in your topic has different meanings in different fields or disciplines, and you want to specifywhich fields or disciplines are relevant. |
Performing Author/Title Searches
Author/title searches are used to acquire specific sources when you already know the author's name and title, or when you want to survey thework of a particular researcher in hopes of finding other relevant sources he or she has authored. Once you have one or two pieces in hand,consult their references pages for the names of other researchers working on your topic and titles of their work. Also, since academic journalstend to specialize, take note of the titles of journals that show up repeatedly in your source list and search by title for those journals to findother relevant articles and researchers active in your field. In her research, Emma found multiple references to the Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication and New Media & Society in her results lists. When she searched for those journals by title and browsed their tablesof contents, she found the names of several researchers working in her field and candidate sources for inclusion in her project.
Performing Keyword Searches
Although keyword searches can quickly supply you with lots of candidate sources to assess, they often return irrelevant results if not carefullyconstructed using a search term development process like the one we went through earlier in this chapter. So, in order to generate morerelevant results, keyword searches are best used when you have a specific research question to answer or you are seeking sources on a topicthat can be described with distinctive or field-specific keywords. They are particularly helpful when your research cuts across traditionaldisciplinary or field lines. You can use keyword sources for grounding research, but as noted above, you must monitor your search results fornew keywords and new variants of keywords as you go. Otherwise, your search will return only the subset of articles that use everydaylanguage to discuss the topic. In order for your source set to help you go beyond the obvious, you will have to conduct additional keywordsearches using the more precise terms you collect as you browse through your results list.
Keyword searches return the most relevant results when you combine multiple keywords with the search term connector AND, which narrowsyour search, returning records that include all of your search terms. If you find that you need to broaden your search, use the search termconnector OR to return records that include any of your search terms. While the specific look of a search interface will vary by provider, mostsearch interfaces provide you with the opportunity to enter multiple keywords and to specify the relationship between them. You might haveto find and click on the "Advanced Search" link to do so, but the increase in quality of results makes it well worth the effort.
Figure 3.3: Using search term connectors
The search shown in Figure 3.3 returns all the records that include the term reading problems AND either adolescent OR teen. Notice theasterisk in our search? It is a truncation symbol, which can be thought of as a "wild card" character that tells the database to return all resultsthat include the characters up to the truncation symbol, no matter what other characters follow the last one.
Although truncation symbols varyby provider, typical truncationsymbols include *, !, ?, #, and $.
Because we searched for adolescent* or teen*, the database returns records that include minorvariations of my terms: adolescent and adolescents, teen, teens, teenagers, teenaged. Notice toothat we might have selected "AND NOT" to omit results—say, on preschoolers—that are notrelevant to our topic. Using these strategies helps ensure that our keyword search returns areasonably small set of relevant results.
Performing Subject Searches
Subject searches are useful when your topic is broad and has many dimensions. You can use subject searches both to survey the range ofsubtopics in a field and to narrow down your results to find only the results containing the subtopics you want. Unlike keyword searches, whichreturn results based solely on the presence or absence of the word in any field in the record, subject searches search for your term only in thesubject headings field of the record. Since subject headings are assigned by the Library of Congress, you need to formulate your search veryprecisely to match the assigned heading, or your search will return no results. For example, for our topic on how parents can motivate theiradolescents to read, we could try a subject search for reading and adolescent (see Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4: A failed subject search
If a subject search fails, the "Search as Words" option will allow you to search through results close toyour original search terms.
Our search returned no results because the Library of Congress has not assigned a heading that combines reading and adolescent in sequence.When you get a result like this, do not conclude that there are no sources on your topic. There are many resources available, but we cannotfind them using a subject search without knowing some of the specific preassigned subject headings. It might seem at first glance that it wouldbe much easier to use keyword searching. But once you find the Library of Congress subject headings specific to your topic, you will locate atreasure trove of sources, and most of them will be relevant.
Strategies for Handling Failed Subject Searches
There are two strategies you can use to turn a failed subject search into one that allows you to locate the right subject headings. One way is toclick the "Search as Words" option (see Figure 3.5) to conduct a keyword search of only the subject headings fields of the records. That willgive you a list of books or articles to review. Choose one that seems to be close to your topic, open the record, and look at the subjectheadings fields (see Figure 3.6 to locate the subject headings fields on a typical record). Often you can click on the subject headings links andbe taken directly to a list of sources.
Another way to deal with a failed subject search is to start with a broader simpler description of the topic: in this case, reading. Doing a subjectsearch on reading will result in a list of subject headings similar to the one shown in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5: Results of a broad subject search
Broad searches will result in many more subject headings, which must then be narrowed down to yourspecific topic.
The number circled tells us that there are 1,336 subject headings related to the word reading in this database. Of course not all of them haveanything to do with the act of deciphering words on the page. Some have to do with places named "Reading" in England, Pennsylvania, Canada,and Australia. You could scroll through this list of 1,336 subject headings to find ones that are relevant to you. But that would take a long time,and you still would not be guaranteed of finding relevant subject headings that do not begin with the word reading. A faster and more reliableapproach would be to click on the "Reading" subject heading and quickly browse some of the titles of the 892 sources on reading to find onethat looks like it might be relevant. For this search, the very first page of results includes a book titled 99 Ways to Get Kids to Love Reading andOne Hundred Books They'll Love. When you pull up its record, you find two relevant subject headings you can select, including one, Reading—Parent participation, that seems spot on.
Figure 3.6: Subject headings on a typical record
It is important to keep in mind the different configurations that a title might be listed under in terms ofsubjects.
Clicking through both of the more specific subject headings leads you indirectly to hundreds of sources, many of which will lead you to otherrelevant subject headings. When you click through Reading—Parent Participation, you are directed to a list of related subject headings thatprovide you with access to relevant sources, as shown in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7: Search results: Reading—Parent Participation
Databases are organized to help maximize searches. In this instance, the specificity of subject headingsfor the search term "Reading—Parent Participation" will allow the researcher to quickly excludeirrelevant groupings and instead focus on those pertinent to his or her topic.
Notice how the subject headings list allows you to specify the kinds of sources you want to find (bibliographies, handbooks, case studies),geographic locations, reading genres, and more. You will want to select several of these related subject headings to produce a list of results toreview. Clicking through the Children—Reading subject heading will produce another set of sources with additional subject headings to search.Since subject headings are uniform across databases, useful subject headings you discover in one database are likely to be useful in otherdatabases. So be sure to record which of the subject headings you find are the most useful. And as always, be on the lookout for new searchterms, new variants, and the jargon that expert researchers use to describe their topics and use those terms in future searches.
Search Narrowing and Search Broadening
One last note on searching: Use search-narrowing strategies when your searches return too many results to review or the results are not asrelevant as you'd like them to be. Use search-broadening strategies when your search returns too few results or they are too specialized foryour purposes. These strategies are encapsulated in Table 3.3.
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Table 3.3: Search-narrowing and search-broadening strategies |
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Narrowing Strategies |
Broadening Strategies |
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· Using multiple search terms connected by "AND"or "AND NOT." · Using more specific or specialized terms. · Using available limiters to set scope. |
· Searching for multiple terms connected by "OR." · Using more common, less specific, or broaderterms. · Using truncation to search for word variants. |
We have already seen search-narrowing strategies at work earlier in this chapter when we looked for synonyms for our search term "child." Wesaw that more specific and specialized terms such as adolescent, teen, or juvenile return fewer but more relevant results. We also saw thatcombining multiple terms in a search (such as "parent" AND "relucta Previous section
3.3 Finding Sources
In our experience, student researchers who struggle to find sources do so because:
1. They are searching somewhat randomly for "general information" about a topic, and/or
2. They are not aware of the important differences between searching web portals such as Google and searching the subscription databasesfound in most academic libraries.
In this section, you will learn how to overcome these problems and find the sources you need.
Starting Research in a New Field
Starting research on a topic in an entirely new field presents researchers with a significant problem—namely, they do not know enough aboutthe topic or field to know what they need to learn. In other words, they do not yet know the questions that other researchers have asked.They do not know the specialized vocabulary that has evolved. They do not yet know what aspect of the topic on which they want to work. Itis very likely that as an undergraduate, you are facing the same problem with your current project. It seems natural that the first thing that youshould do is to fire up your browser, log in to a database, and search away to find something, anything, to get your feet wet. But that is acounterproductive way to start acquiring the basic knowledge that you will need in order to find a useful set of sources and frame a set ofquestions.
Blend Images/SuperStock
Sources can be found in various ways, such as searching for keywordsonline or using databases provided by an academic library.
Instead, you need to look for a short overview of the topic that will orient youto some of the driving concerns of the field. If you are conducting research fora college course, it is likely that some of your course materials can provide youwith at least some of what you need. Course textbooks are especially goodresources for surveying the breadth of a subject and acquiring the specializedlanguage of the field. Mining them for concepts and exhibits can provide youboth with search terms you can use right away and clues for developing others.Also consult lecture notes, handouts and slides, and assigned or recommendedreadings. If your readings are scholarly, review the sources listed on theirreferences pages to locate the names of researchers working in your field andkey concepts. Once you are searching the databases, try a few searches thatinclude the term "review of the literature" with your topic to see if you can findan article that summarizes and evaluates recent research in the field.
Besides looking at course materials, you can also consult specializedencyclopedias, subject-specific dictionaries, and topic bibliographies. Thereference sections of most academic libraries stock a wide range of thesehelpful orienting texts. Many libraries also provide librarian-prepared subject guides to often-used fields to help you identify the most usefulorienting texts, bibliographic tools, and databases. Fields with subject guides include anthropology, company/industry research, criminal justiceand law enforcement, early childhood education, heathcare administration, and literature. You can find these and more subject guides intutorials on your university or local library websites. Often, you can also call, email, or chat online with a librarian for help deciding which onesmight be of most use to you.
Assessing Your Research Needs
Once you have a basic overview of your topic, the first step in finding a coherent set of useful sources is to assess your research needs. WithBizup's BEAM mnemonic, you know that you will need (a) background sources, (b) exhibit sources, (c) argument sources, and (d) methodsources. That is useful as far as it goes, but it does not go far enough to help you choose the right databases for your specific project or tosearch them effectively. If you have completed the project design work in Chapter 2 (gathering an overview of your topic using coursematerials, subject-specific encyclopedias and dictionaries, and topic-specific bibliographies), you have already performed some of thepreliminary steps necessary to assess your research needs. In particular, the initial set of questions you wrote will be a primary resource foryour first targeted foray into the literature. If you are still in the design phase of your project, do not worry. This section will help you get yourproject started well.
Developing a Set of Research Questions
The key to finding useful sources for your project is to approach a database session with good questions in hand. In Chapter 2, you learned thatresearch projects tend to have two different types of questions: essential questions that prompt you to investigate perplexing phenomenon orsolve complex problems, and supporting questions that guide you to find the material you need to answer your essential questions. You alsolearned that good questions should have a specific scope, which means they should clearly specify which populations, locations, time periods,subtopics, and theories are relevant to your question. If you have not written any essential or supporting research questions, you will need todo so before approaching the database. Go back to Section 2.3 and work through the activities to develop your project definition, topic, andresearch questions.
Constructing Effective Search Queries
Once you have good research questions, you must learn how to use them to query the database. If you have a lot of experience searching theInternet, you likely use natural language—language that looks and sounds like the language we use in everyday situations—to search for whatyou want to find. The following search queries are written in natural language:
· "What is the best Chinese restaurant in St. Paul?"
· "How can I catch more fish?"
· "What are some ways to help my child who does not like to read?"
On the Internet, natural language searches tend to work well enough to allow you to find what you want without too much effort. But if youquery a research database using natural language, you will likely find that you get few or no results. What is more, the few results you get maybe irrelevant because research databases are organized using the same categories and logic that organize the content of research libraries. As aresult, databases "speak" a language that allows you to search and find more than just the specific title for which you were looking. It allowsyou to find clusters of related content as well. So in order to search academic library catalogs and academic databases well, you have to learnhow to construct searches that the system can process.
Basic Research Tips
Keywords are nouns and objects related to the topic. Uniqueidentifiers such as names, titles, and dates yield the best results.Scholarly sources can be found through library databases. Searchengines provide sources for general queries.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What are five keywords that you might search in relation toyour potential topic(s)?
2. What databases are available for you to search at youruniversity or library?
Search construction involves analyzing your research question to identify potential search terms, refining the question by specifying therelationship between key terms, and finding synonyms for keywords that may be too imprecise to generate sources that are relevant to yourproject. To learn how to construct effective search queries, let us discuss each part of this process by analyzing the last research question onour list: "What are some ways to help my child who does not like to read?"
Step 1: Identify keywords or concepts in the research question.
Likely two keywords leap out at you: child, read. So you write them down on a research log form like the one shown in the Sample ResearchLog. While you could go directly to a multipurpose database and enter those two terms in a keyword search, you would likely get thousands ofresults. Only a few of them would be closely relevant to your question because there are many different possible relationships between yourtwo keywords, and you have not yet specified the relationship between them. Without specifying the relationship between them, the databasecannot tell if you are an elementary school teacher wanting sources on how to teach very young children to learn to read for the first time, amemoirist writing about the value of her time spent reading as a child, or a concerned parent wanting information on how to motivate youradolescent boy to enjoy reading more.
Step 2: Specify the relationship between keywords.
The first thing to do is to go back to the original question and see whether you can find additional keywords that better specify the relationshipbetween child and read. Here is the question again: "What are some ways to help my child who doesn't like to read?" A second look at thequestion reveals two additional key phrases that indicate a very specific relationship between child and read: We have a child who does not liketo read, and a parent who wants ways to help him or her. Notice how this reformulation of the question brings in a new keyword: parent. Byfinding the additional phrases that specify the relationship between our keywords, we have arrived at a better understanding of what it is weare looking for. Developing and refining your question is not only a key strategy for generating more productive search combinations; it alsohelps you better understand your research needs. If you are lucky, it can help you develop some other closely related research questions.
Step 3: Refine imprecise keywords by finding synonyms.
Adding new keywords and phrases to the search seems like it should help the database return sources that more specifically address yourconcerns, and to a degree it will. But you will not find everything written on the topic, and you may find nothing at all. This is because two ofthe primary keywords (child and parent) have multiple synonyms. Furthermore, two of the key phrases (ways to help and does not like) expressrelationships in everyday language that expert researchers would find too imprecise to use in their articles. Since researchers try to uselanguage carefully and precisely to represent accurately the problems, data, and solutions on which they are working, you will need to producea list of more precise synonyms that researchers might use for each of your keywords or phrases. Remember, different writers might choosedifferent terms to convey the same idea. So you will need to develop and test several different combinations of search terms to locate all ofthe most relevant sources for your query.
Let us continue with our example by refining our imprecise terms—ways to help and does not like. You can use a dictionary or thesaurus tohelp find synonyms, but you may get better, more efficient results by using the materials you found earlier during your grounding research inspecialized dictionaries and encyclopedias to guide your synonym development. Here is what a standard thesaurus suggests as potentialsynonyms for ways: habits, conduct, customs, behavior, traditions. None of these terms gets at what you want to find out. In everydaylanguage, you are looking for advice or techniques to motivate your child. In your grounding research, researchers call teaching techniquesmethods or pedagogies. Here is the cluster of terms we have developed for ways to help: advice, techniques, methods, pedagogies. By steppingthrough a similar synonym development process, we can replace does not like with reluctant, resistant, unenthusiastic, averse, unwilling.
Child might seem like a specific enough term, but there are several others that researchers might use. Youth, adolescent, teen, tween, juvenile,and kids are just some of the possibilities. Considering that more boys than girls seem to become reluctant readers, your list should probablyinclude gendered terms for child as well: boy, son, young man, male.
Research Log
After all this question development, we can rewrite our original question in a much more specific way:
"What methods, techniques, or pedagogies can parents use to motivate teenage male reluctant readers?"
With such a specific question, you will find a reasonably small number of sources to review, and the majority of sources you locate should berelevant.
Choosing Databases
Once you have identified keywords and phrases and their variants, you are ready to approach a research database to do some searching.Before you can search, you need to decide which databases to choose to search (see Figure 3.2 for factors that can help you choose anappropriate database). Many libraries have made it simpler for you to know which ones to choose by listing databases by subject anddescribing contents. They have also provided subject guides to reliable resources for several disciplines, including anthropology, company andindustry research, criminal justice and law enforcement, early childhood education, healthcare administration, and literature. These subjectguides contain useful database recommendations as well as the names of useful subject specific resources, including reference books,dictionaries, encyclopedias, and more.
Database Categories
For the purposes of your research project, you need to be able to distinguish between two major categories of database. The first, known as ageneral purpose database (or multidisciplinary database), is often a good place to start your research because it indexes many different fieldsor disciplines. But while this type of database offers breadth, it can sacrifice depth. In order to bring you a wide sample of research being donein so many fields, general purpose databases tend to focus on the major journals in the field. EBSCOhost's Academic Search Premier andProQuest are good examples of general purpose databases widely used by college students.
Figure 3.2: Choosing a database
On the other hand, subject-specific databases (also known as field-specific databases) aim to represent the full range of a particular field orsubject. If you do not find what you need in a general database, or if you suspect there is more to the topic than is covered in a generaldatabase, you should consult a subject-specific database such as Westlaw (law and business), Sage Journals Online (social sciences),PyschArticles (psychology), ERIC (education), PubMED (medicine and healthcare), or the MLA International Bibliography (literature). It isimportant to understand that no one database can serve all your research needs. You will need to try your searches in multiple databases todiscover the best sources for your project. Be sure to record on your research log which databases provide you with the best results for each ofyour searches.
Further Considerations When Choosing a Database
As you continue to consider which databases to choose for your research, the following questions could influence your choice:
1. Does the database provide full-text access to sources or only abstracts or citations? Full text is obviously best, but finding an abstract orcitation can be useful. If you find a citation or abstract of a useful article, be sure to record the full citation information so you can searchfor the full text in another database.
2. How current are the publications indexed in the database? How many years into the past does the database index? The deeper and morerecent the coverage the better.
3. Is access to the contents of the database free or fee-based? Remember, many fee-based databases that you find online are free to youwhen accessed through your university or local library.
4. Does the database provide for electronic delivery of sources and citations? If not, contact a librarian to learn how to request that anelectronic copy of a source be sent to you.
Searching Databases
Unlike search engines such as Google, Bing, or Yahoo!, which use keyword searches by default, academic databases work best when you specifythe kind of search you want to conduct. There are three major kinds of database searches you can conduct: author/title searches, keywordsearches, and subject searches. Which search you choose depends on (a) whether you are searching for unknown sources on a topic or aspecific article or book written by a specific author, (b) what you know about what you're trying to find, (c) how specifically or broadly yourtopic is defined, and (d) how field- or discipline-specific your topic or research needs are. Table 3.2 is provided as a reference to help youdetermine what type of search you should conduct. Each search type is discussed in more detail in the following sections.
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Table 3.2: Database search types |
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Use Author/Title Search when: · You know the name of the author you want to find. · You want to find additional articles by a known writer. · You know the title of an article or book you want to find. · You know the title of a journal, periodical, or book series that frequently contains sources relevant to yourtopic. |
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Use Keyword Search when: · You have a specific research question to answer. · Your topic has keywords that are distinctive, new, or field specific. · Your topic can only be specified with multiple keywords (methods AND motivate AND adolescent ANDreluctant readers). · You have multiple synonyms that you want to search simultaneously (children OR kids OR teens ORadolescents). · More than one field or discipline is relevant to your topic (adolescent psychology AND reading instruction) |
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Use Subject Search when: · Your topic is broad, you are conducting grounding research, and you don't yet have specific researchquestions to answer. · You are looking for sources about a person rather than by a person. · A keyword in your topic has different meanings in different fields or disciplines, and you want to specifywhich fields or disciplines are relevant. |
Performing Author/Title Searches
Author/title searches are used to acquire specific sources when you already know the author's name and title, or when you want to survey thework of a particular researcher in hopes of finding other relevant sources he or she has authored. Once you have one or two pieces in hand,consult their references pages for the names of other researchers working on your topic and titles of their work. Also, since academic journalstend to specialize, take note of the titles of journals that show up repeatedly in your source list and search by title for those journals to findother relevant articles and researchers active in your field. In her research, Emma found multiple references to the Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication and New Media & Society in her results lists. When she searched for those journals by title and browsed their tablesof contents, she found the names of several researchers working in her field and candidate sources for inclusion in her project.
Performing Keyword Searches
Although keyword searches can quickly supply you with lots of candidate sources to assess, they often return irrelevant results if not carefullyconstructed using a search term development process like the one we went through earlier in this chapter. So, in order to generate morerelevant results, keyword searches are best used when you have a specific research question to answer or you are seeking sources on a topicthat can be described with distinctive or field-specific keywords. They are particularly helpful when your research cuts across traditionaldisciplinary or field lines. You can use keyword sources for grounding research, but as noted above, you must monitor your search results fornew keywords and new variants of keywords as you go. Otherwise, your search will return only the subset of articles that use everydaylanguage to discuss the topic. In order for your source set to help you go beyond the obvious, you will have to conduct additional keywordsearches using the more precise terms you collect as you browse through your results list.
Keyword searches return the most relevant results when you combine multiple keywords with the search term connector AND, which narrowsyour search, returning records that include all of your search terms. If you find that you need to broaden your search, use the search termconnector OR to return records that include any of your search terms. While the specific look of a search interface will vary by provider, mostsearch interfaces provide you with the opportunity to enter multiple keywords and to specify the relationship between them. You might haveto find and click on the "Advanced Search" link to do so, but the increase in quality of results makes it well worth the effort.
Figure 3.3: Using search term connectors
The search shown in Figure 3.3 returns all the records that include the term reading problems AND either adolescent OR teen. Notice theasterisk in our search? It is a truncation symbol, which can be thought of as a "wild card" character that tells the database to return all resultsthat include the characters up to the truncation symbol, no matter what other characters follow the last one.
Although truncation symbols varyby provider, typical truncationsymbols include *, !, ?, #, and $.
Because we searched for adolescent* or teen*, the database returns records that include minorvariations of my terms: adolescent and adolescents, teen, teens, teenagers, teenaged. Notice toothat we might have selected "AND NOT" to omit results—say, on preschoolers—that are notrelevant to our topic. Using these strategies helps ensure that our keyword search returns areasonably small set of relevant results.
Performing Subject Searches
Subject searches are useful when your topic is broad and has many dimensions. You can use subject searches both to survey the range ofsubtopics in a field and to narrow down your results to find only the results containing the subtopics you want. Unlike keyword searches, whichreturn results based solely on the presence or absence of the word in any field in the record, subject searches search for your term only in thesubject headings field of the record. Since subject headings are assigned by the Library of Congress, you need to formulate your search veryprecisely to match the assigned heading, or your search will return no results. For example, for our topic on how parents can motivate theiradolescents to read, we could try a subject search for reading and adolescent (see Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4: A failed subject search
If a subject search fails, the "Search as Words" option will allow you to search through results close toyour original search terms.
Our search returned no results because the Library of Congress has not assigned a heading that combines reading and adolescent in sequence.When you get a result like this, do not conclude that there are no sources on your topic. There are many resources available, but we cannotfind them using a subject search without knowing some of the specific preassigned subject headings. It might seem at first glance that it wouldbe much easier to use keyword searching. But once you find the Library of Congress subject headings specific to your topic, you will locate atreasure trove of sources, and most of them will be relevant.
Strategies for Handling Failed Subject Searches
There are two strategies you can use to turn a failed subject search into one that allows you to locate the right subject headings. One way is toclick the "Search as Words" option (see Figure 3.5) to conduct a keyword search of only the subject headings fields of the records. That willgive you a list of books or articles to review. Choose one that seems to be close to your topic, open the record, and look at the subjectheadings fields (see Figure 3.6 to locate the subject headings fields on a typical record). Often you can click on the subject headings links andbe taken directly to a list of sources.
Another way to deal with a failed subject search is to start with a broader simpler description of the topic: in this case, reading. Doing a subjectsearch on reading will result in a list of subject headings similar to the one shown in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5: Results of a broad subject search
Broad searches will result in many more subject headings, which must then be narrowed down to yourspecific topic.
The number circled tells us that there are 1,336 subject headings related to the word reading in this database. Of course not all of them haveanything to do with the act of deciphering words on the page. Some have to do with places named "Reading" in England, Pennsylvania, Canada,and Australia. You could scroll through this list of 1,336 subject headings to find ones that are relevant to you. But that would take a long time,and you still would not be guaranteed of finding relevant subject headings that do not begin with the word reading. A faster and more reliableapproach would be to click on the "Reading" subject heading and quickly browse some of the titles of the 892 sources on reading to find onethat looks like it might be relevant. For this search, the very first page of results includes a book titled 99 Ways to Get Kids to Love Reading andOne Hundred Books They'll Love. When you pull up its record, you find two relevant subject headings you can select, including one, Reading—Parent participation, that seems spot on.
Figure 3.6: Subject headings on a typical record
It is important to keep in mind the different configurations that a title might be listed under in terms ofsubjects.
Clicking through both of the more specific subject headings leads you indirectly to hundreds of sources, many of which will lead you to otherrelevant subject headings. When you click through Reading—Parent Participation, you are directed to a list of related subject headings thatprovide you with access to relevant sources, as shown in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7: Search results: Reading—Parent Participation
Databases are organized to help maximize searches. In this instance, the specificity of subject headingsfor the search term "Reading—Parent Participation" will allow the researcher to quickly excludeirrelevant groupings and instead focus on those pertinent to his or her topic.
Notice how the subject headings list allows you to specify the kinds of sources you want to find (bibliographies, handbooks, case studies),geographic locations, reading genres, and more. You will want to select several of these related subject headings to produce a list of results toreview. Clicking through the Children—Reading subject heading will produce another set of sources with additional subject headings to search.Since subject headings are uniform across databases, useful subject headings you discover in one database are likely to be useful in otherdatabases. So be sure to record which of the subject headings you find are the most useful. And as always, be on the lookout for new searchterms, new variants, and the jargon that expert researchers use to describe their topics and use those terms in future searches.
Search Narrowing and Search Broadening
One last note on searching: Use search-narrowing strategies when your searches return too many results to review or the results are not asrelevant as you'd like them to be. Use search-broadening strategies when your search returns too few results or they are too specialized foryour purposes. These strategies are encapsulated in Table 3.3.
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Table 3.3: Search-narrowing and search-broadening strategies |
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Narrowing Strategies |
Broadening Strategies |
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· Using multiple search terms connected by "AND"or "AND NOT." · Using more specific or specialized terms. · Using available limiters to set scope. |
· Searching for multiple terms connected by "OR." · Using more common, less specific, or broaderterms. · Using truncation to search for word variants. |
We have already seen search-narrowing strategies at work earlier in this chapter when we looked for synonyms for our search term "child." Wesaw that more specific and specialized terms such as adolescent, teen, or juvenile return fewer but more relevant results. We also saw thatcombining multiple terms in a search (such as "parent" AND "reluctant reader" AND "techniques") significantly reduced the number ofirrelevant sources we needed to sift through.
When searches return too few results, you need to expand your searches. Rewrite your search using fewer search terms, or by using "OR" as aconnector instead of "AND," as in a search for "juvenile" OR "teen" OR "adolescent" AND "readers"). You can also try replacing technical oroverly specific terms with more common or more general terms: "reading comprehension" might replace "semantic decoding," for example.Finally, try using truncation symbols to search for variations of a term: "read*" to search for "reading" and "readers."
nt reader" AND "techniques") significantly reduced the number ofirrelevant sources we needed to sift through. Previous section
Chapter Summary
As you review this chapter, pay particular attention to the concepts, strategies, and tools that enable you to see your sources as somethingmore than containers of information. Being able to determine whether your source is "scholarly" or "popular" is a key determinant of the usesto which it may or may not be put. The BEAM mnemonic can help you see your sources as a writer does—as resources: to help you establishthe background of your topic; to provide you with exhibits to analyze and interpret; to enable you to borrow, extend, or counter the argumentsof other researchers; and to certify the rigor of your research by using reliable methods.
It is vital to remember that success in searching for sources depends on what questions you ask and how well you ask them. If you areconducting research in a new field, be sure to use the strategies detailed in this chapter to learn the kinds of questions researchers working inthe field ask and the specialized language they use. Once you have researchable questions, remember to analyze your questions to determinetheir keywords and the relationships among them. Do not forget to search for variants or synonyms of key concepts. Use your research log tokeep track of successful searches so that you can use them in other databases.
You should also experiment with Google Scholar and the databases available to you through your university or local library to become morefamiliar with database searching. As you learned in Chapter 2, be sure to analyze your results list to discover the names of researchers workingin your area, new terms or concepts, and subject headings that are relevant to your topic.
Key Terms
Click on each key term to see the definition.
A source that provides researchers with claims to affirm, dispute, refine, or extend.
A source that provides researchers with established facts and accepted ideas, which they use to establish a significant context for their ownresearch.
Joseph Bizup's memory aid to help researchers understand four common sense ways to use sources in research: as background, exhibit,argument, or method.
A source that provides researchers with examples or cases to analyze and interpret in support or refutation of a claim.
A source that provides researchers with a reliable process for gathering, analyzing, and interpreting exhibits.
Also known as a "general purpose database"; a database that indexes many different fields or disciplines.
Language used by human beings in the ordinary course of events, in contrast to computer, database, or machine languages and the systematiclanguage of formal logic.
A source written by journalists reporting on current issues or events.
A source written primarily for entertainment or to earn money.
A peer reviewed source produced by credentialed experts seeking the truth and writing in their field of expertise.
The analytical process by which researchers transform their questions into queries of a library database to find sources.
A research aid produced by librarians to provide researchers who are new to a field with guidance in locating appropriate databases, journals,and sources.
Fields in a library database record that specify the topics and subtopics addressed in a text.
Also known as a "field-specific database"; a database that aims to represent the full range of a particular field or subject.
A source written by a representative of a profession or industry for the purpose of informing or advising.
A "wild card" character that tells a search database to return all results that include the characters up to the truncation symbol, no matterwhat other characters follow the last one.
Web Sites For Further Reference
http://prezi.com/svjv-nfgka95/intro-to-library-databases/ This "Intro to Library Databases" Prezi by Nancy Bellafante explains the difference between the content available via Google and librarydatabases, as well as how to analyze a research question and search a database.
http://www.schooltube.com/video/f42863cbb7cb4db6a3f4/Talking%20to%20Databases This short video on "Talking to a Database" produced at Kent State University shows how to turn a research topic into a format that librarydatabases will understand.
When searches return too few results, you need to expand your searches. Rewrite your search using fewer search terms, or by using "OR" as aconnector instead of "AND," as in a search for "juvenile" OR "teen" OR "adolescent" AND "readers"). You can also try replacing technical oroverly specific terms with more common or more general terms: "reading comprehension" might replace "semantic decoding," for example.Finally, try using truncation symbols to search for variations of a term: "read*" to search for "reading" and "readers."