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4.2 Working With Sources—How to Review the Literature
As we move from finding sources to working with sources, it is important to understand what you are doing when you "review the literature"as well as get a better grasp on the structure and dynamics of research conversations. The most important thing to bear in mind when you arereviewing the literature is to remember that research articles and books are artifacts of living minds actively involved in conversation withothers. When you consult a research database to find information on a topic, you are actually seeking out partners-in-inquiry—people who areasking questions similar to your own and thinking about issues that concern you. You are looking both for more material (facts and concepts) tothink with and for someone to think along with, someone who looks at things from a different perspective and who sees different aspects ofthe phenomenon or problem.
So when you start your review of the literature, remember to keep track of the names, disciplines, and areas of expertise of the researcherswho wrote the articles you are reading. Over time, if you have located an active and coherent conversation, as Emma did, you should startrecognizing names, be able to link them to positions and lines of thought, identify whose ideas and positions they use and whose they counter,and see the structure of the conversation emerge. In fact, creating this understanding of the structure and dynamics of the conversation is asignificant part of the work you need to do in this phase of your research. If you do not understand how researchers are using the ideas, data,and analyses to make arguments, you risk cherry picking data to support your own views and misunderstanding the positions of researchers. Ifyou do not recognize how arguments are positioned with respect to one another, you also risk overestimating the certainty and consensus ofthe field, and underestimating the degree of reasoned controversy.
Critical Reading and Note-Taking Strategies
During her earlier research, our student researcher, Emma, built a strong set of articles—ones she believes accurately represent the substanceof the research conversations to which she has been listening. Now is the time to start to read the articles systematically so that she canconstruct a structural model of the relationships among the ideas she finds in the articles she is reading. Before we continue with Emma'sresearch project, let us take some time to understand the differences between reading for information and reading to write about a topic.Along the way, we will collect some concrete strategies for reading more critically.
To get the most out of your time spent reading, you should set ambitious reading goals; Table 4.1 lays out some of the key differencesbetween basic and advanced reading goals.
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Table 4.1: Basic and advanced reading goals |
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Basic Reading Goals |
Advanced Reading Goals |
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Read to store andretrieve information |
Read to be conversant—to be able to speak about the details (and the relationshipsamong them) and general effect of a text without referring to it |
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Read passively |
Read actively—take notes, ask questions, make connections, paraphrase key points |
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Read to absorb |
Read to explore, inquire, consider, question, criticize, analyze |
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Read to understand |
Read to do something to/with the text—evaluate, synthesize, create, write |
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Read for the gist |
Read to understand nuances and to assess views, to locate gaps in the conversation, tofind places to comment and respond |
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Read each text inisolation |
Read texts as part of an intertextual dialogue or field |
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Readimpressionistically |
Read systematically |
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Read to agree ordisagree |
Read to understand a position that is different from one's own |
Tips on Keeping Research Notes and Citations Organized
English Professor James Meetze recommends ways to keep your research notes organized.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Why is writing down source citations along with your notes an important practice?
2. What is your current strategy for organizing your notes and sources, and does it work well foryou or not?
Analyzing and Interpreting
In order to read to fulfill these more advanced goals, you may need to alter your reading habits. In particular you will need to take ananalytical approach to reading your sources in order to interpret them. By interpretation, we mean the process by which you have come to seethe significance, meaning, or implications of the ideas, data, and questions with which you are working. Analysis and interpretation arenotoriously fuzzy terms. But it is not hard to be concrete about the process used to do these activities. Let us begin by understanding what itmeans to read analytically. To read analytically is to attend to, understand, assess, and comment on
1. The sequence of moves a writer uses to make an argument;
2. The relationship between claims made and the evidence and logic used to support them;
3. The significance and implications of specific keywords or phrases a writer chooses to convey his or her view;
4. Patterns in data, ideas, methods, or perspectives;
5. Anomalous data, ideas, methods, or perspective once a pattern has been established; and
6. The explicit or tacit organizing binaries or oppositions in the piece.
Reading analytically also means
7. To uncover and reveal the tacit values and assumptions that anchor a writer's perspective;
8. To understand the larger contexts in which specific data or phenomenon are relevant; and
9. To explore and reveal the implications of the data, ideas, or methods.
While it may seem that reading analytically requires you to pay attention to a lot, the following sections provide you with some strategies for astep-by-step reading and note-taking process that will maximize your chances of reading analytically.
Approaching the Text With the Right Mindset in the Right Environment
It can be easy to check out of a reading that on first blush seems dull or irrelevant, is hard to follow, or is on complex subject matter. Do notlet yourself take the easy way out! It will make your life as a writer considerably more difficult if you do. So, try to focus hard, knowing thatthe work you put in up front will pay off with time saved, less stress, and better results at the end of the project. Work actively to payattention, understand, and respond to the material being presented. Concentrate on understanding what is being conveyed, whatever thedeficiencies of the piece of writing. Try to connect what you are reading to what you already know (through personal experience or otherreading you have done on the subject). Think about how what you are reading possibly changes what you think about the topic on which youare working. Assess the uses and limits of the ideas which you are reading for your own writing project.
Using Pre-Reading Strategies
Survey the reading and develop questions and interests to guide your reading. Activate what you already know about the topics, whether fromother reading or life experiences. When you survey a text, you scan the table of contents, introduction, chapter introductions, headings, orsummaries to pick up a shallow overview of the text. From your survey, develop a small set of initial questions or thoughts that you will to tryto answer or think through as you read. Also, locate areas of particular interest (topics or subtopics, but also specific page ranges) to which youwill give your best attention.
Before reading the text carefully, consider what you already know (or think you know) about the topic of the text. By creating expectationsabout what you are reading, you will notice when the writer's line of thought diverges from your expectations and see those moments asinteresting, puzzling, troubling, ambiguous, or suggestive—as moments about which you will need to write.
Marking Up Your Texts
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Marking up a source helps reinforce your engagement with it,regardless of which method you choose to make notes andannotations.
The simple act of making marks on a reading focuses your attention andpromotes an active and dynamic approach to your reading that is absolutelyessential if you are to write effectively about what you read. Unless you have alate model tablet that accepts input from a stylus, and a good piece of "ink onPDF" software (such as PDFill's PDF Ink), it is best to mark up a reading using apencil or pen.
In the next paragraph, we will describe some basic marks and types of margincomments. But before we do, we want to prompt you to notice how they focusyour attention more on the flow of the intellectual conversation, rather than onthe specific pieces of information or materials the writers use to have theconversation. Remember, you are reading to further the conversation, notmerely to acquire and retain information. To participate in the conversation,you have to be able to use the words on the page to map the exchange ofideas embedded in the text.
Use the following marks and margin comment types to help you make theconversation in your set of research texts come to life (see Marked Up Text:Sam Anderson, "In Defense of Distraction" for an example):
· Underline essential and supporting questions and label which supporting questions go with each essential question;
· Circle key concepts, and then define concepts and terms in your own words in the margin;
· Double-underline compelling passages and make margin notes about how you could use them in your own project;
· Draw a block around passages that are complicated, challenging, or hard to understand, and then on a separate sheet of paper, try toparaphrase them until you understand them;
· Jot down the ideas, examples, and lines of inquiry that occur to you as you read;
· Draw lines or make cross-references to forge connections and comparisons between sections of the reading, or between the currentreading and others you have read previously; and
· Make margin notes about the uses and limits of particular concepts or passages for your own work.
It is particularly important to track the writerly moves the writer is making. When you track a writer's moves, you are paying as much attentionto the purpose of each paragraph as to the content of it. When you attend to the writer's purpose of a paragraph, you better understand howhe or she wants you to synthesize the ideas, exhibits, and arguments he or she is presenting into a larger argument. When you understand howa writer is making his or her argument, you can better evaluate it. Table 4.2 below presents some common writerly moves for which to be onthe lookout.
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Table 4.2: Common writerly moves |
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Offering background Analyzing an exhibit Interpreting an exhibit Borrowing expert authority Extending another writer's argument Presenting another writer's argument |
Countering another writer's argument Making an argument Defining terms Describing a method Criticizing another writer's method Revealing tacit values or assumptions |
Keeping track of a writer's moves will enable you to better see the conversation in his or her text. By understanding how the author is makinguse of his or her sources, you can distinguish between what the sources say and what the author is saying in response. Then you can consideryour response to all the voices in the text.
Marked Up Text: Sam Anderson, "In Defense of Distraction"
You should also keep track of your intellectual response to the reading: Are you skeptical of some of the ideas or arguments presented? Doessome way of approaching a problem or object of analysis seem particularly interesting or puzzling? Is something confusing or suddenlyparticularly clear? Write it all down. Keep track of the questions, ideas, problems, potential forwards/counters, and personal experiences thatpercolate in your brain as you read. These will be the foundations on which you come to terms with the piece.
When you are finished reading, immediately write a healthy paragraph right on your printout (or on the first or last page of your chapter, rightin the book if you own it) documenting both the basic substance of the writer's contribution to the conversation and your initial intellectualresponses to it. Record the essential ideas, concepts, or claims that you want to forward or counter, and explain how and why. Describe howreading this text changed your thinking (furthered it? nuanced it? redirected it? complicated it? confused it?).
Transfer your margin notes to a word-processing program or note-taking program (such as Evernote) after reading. We recommend transferringnotes only after you read, rather than as you go, because the act of transferring your notes from the page to the word processor helps solidifyyour encounter with the text. You will remember more of what you read and develop a deeper, more sophisticated response to the text byrevisiting your margin notes in the act of transfer.
You do not need to transfer everything. In fact, you want to be selective to start winnowing important stuff from trivial (even if interesting)stuff. Start by transferring everything that went into your "healthy paragraph." When you wrote that paragraph, you started to develop yourown response to the material. You began to integrate new ideas and information with old, and started to think about how your own projectwill be impacted by engaging this particular text in conversation. As you revisit your notes in light of other readings and further work on yourown piece of writing, you will add to, revise, rethink, and respond to this initial response (so be sure to record the date of your initial reading,and each time you revisit your notes). By tracking the development of your thought as you revisit and rethink your response to a reading inlight of further readings and thinking, you will have a history of your engagement with the ideas and lines of thought that are the substance ofthe conversation you and all the other writers are having. When you write your paper, you will rely on the history of your encounter with otherconversationalists to formulate your own entry into the conversation.
After transferring that first "healthy paragraph," transfer only the most important concepts (especially ones named with specialized terms),conversation-changing insights, passages, examples, and lines of thought you might want to emulate or deploy in your own writing projects. Donot worry about capturing data or statistics—they are on paper and easily retrievable. If you need one or two specific pieces of information, goback and make a note on the first page of the reading indicating where exactly in the essay the data is (page number) and—here is the crucialstep—explaining the meaning and implications of the data. Unless you write down what the data means to you, you will surely forget what youfound interesting, useful, or troubling about the data.
This intensive approach to reading is necessary because you are not just reading to understand a fact, remember it, and select the right optionon a multiple choice exam. You are reading to respond to this text (and others) in writing. You need to cultivate and record a complexintellectual response to the text in order to write about it in an interesting and compelling way.
Synthesizing
Once you implement this reading process and do some initial reading in your source set, you should start to see connections between yoursources. Likely they will be pursuing some of the same questions, using similar kinds of exhibits or illustrations, and circling around a small setof explanations. When you read for research purposes, it is important not to treat each text in isolation. Instead, try to understand how thetexts are talking back and forth to one another on a small set of issues.
In order to demonstrate one way to systematically represent the structural relationships in a conversation, let's review a visual representationof the research conversation represented in Sam Anderson's New York magazine piece "In Defense of Distraction" (2010). In it, Andersonreviews the scientific literature on distraction and multitasking with the purpose of challenging the notion that we are mired in a "crisis ofattention." While Anderson admits that opportunities for distraction abound in our media-saturated society, he argues that mindful distractioncan be a source of creativity and insight. Anderson's article discusses 10 different writers' views on the subject. That means he has condensed10 or more different articles and books into several paragraphs of text to arrive at his own synthesis of their ideas. No researcher, not even aprofessional like Anderson, can hold the details of 10 complicated texts in mind. So as you learn more, it becomes important to develop someefficient means of representing a lot of material in a clear efficient way. One way to do this is to create a synthesis table, where the views ofseveral different writers on a single topic are entered. Table 4.3 illustrates part of one Anderson might have made.
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Table 4.3: Synthesis table |
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Writer Name |
Question: What are the causes and characteristics of the "attention crisis," and whatcan be done about it? |
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Herbert Simon |
We live in a society where we have access to too much information. Too muchinformation "consumes the attention of its recipients. Hence a wealth of informationcreates a poverty of attention, and a need to allocate that attention efficiently"(Anderson, 2010, para. 3). |
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David Meyer |
Multitasking is a myth. Our brains process information across many different channels.When we "multitask" we're rapidly switching between channels. When a channel getsoverloaded, our brains become "inefficient and mistake-prone" (Anderson, 2010, para.12). |
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Linda Stone |
The prevalence of networked mobile computing/communication devices means that weare frequently in a state of "continuous partial attention," which makes it hard to sustainfocus (Anderson, 2010, para. 14). |
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Winifred Gallagher |
While the world constantly intrudes on our attention, paying attention is an act of will.We should be able to choose to focus (Anderson, 2010, para. 15). Because the capacityof our attention is limited to 110 bits of information per second, we must choose tospend our attention on worthwhile things (para. 21). When we do not choose to spendour attention wisely, we should blame ourselves (para. 22). |
While a synthesis table enables you to see the divergent views of the concept at a glance, it does not easily capture the relationships amongthe views. A concept map does a much better job. Figure 4.1 shows what a concept map based on Anderson's synthesis might look like:
Figure 4.1: Concept map of Anderson's synthesis
Thinking creatively about concepts and questions—including using concept maps—helps to sort out yourideas and notes and synthesize the information in a useful way.
Concept maps are designed to answer single questions—in this case, "What is the ‘poverty of attention' thesis?" The thoughts of each writerare color coded so that you can easily see which ideas belong to each writer, and where their ideas overlap. As you review the concept map,you will see how much detail it conveys, as well as gaining a sense of which writers agree with one another, and which dissent from the others.
To better understand how to create concept maps, visit the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition website athttp://cmap.ihmc.us/docs/conceptmap.html. For now, remember this: However you decide to take notes on your reading, when it comes timeto synthesize, be sure to capture areas of disagreement as well as agreement. Being able to acknowledge that there are alternative ways ofthinking about your questions and responding to them fairly and thoughtfully is a prerequisite for joining the conversation of researchers inyour essay.
Once you understand who is saying what in the conversation, you can use your synthesis table or concept map to write a sequence ofparagraphs in which you synthesize what you have learned from the literature. As we explained in Chapter 1, writers of syntheses weavetogether significant strands of previous research to create a bigger more useful picture of what the research community knows. More thansummary, synthesis is an interpretive account of the literature. By "interpretive account," we mean that as you explain what other writers havewritten, you also explain what you think is the significance of the meaning of the literature. Here is an example of what a synthesis might looklike in Emma's essay. Notice that while much of the first two paragraphs are straightforward description of other writers' ideas, the final twoparagraphs evaluate the utility of the pieces of research discussed. Paragraph 3 explains what Emma thinks her sources have gotten right.Paragraph 4 details what she thinks they have gotten wrong.
Para. 1: There has been a lot of hand-wringing going on in the last 5 years about what "kids these days" are doing on theInternet, and what the Internet is doing to kids. Parents, teachers, clergy, and a host of commentators fear that the generationtechnology writer John Palfrey (2008) deems "born digital" is categorically different from previous generations because of howdeeply their lives are intertwined with communications technologies. Tethered to one another via mobile phones, Facebook, andIM/texting, well-equipped teenagers are undeniably what linguist Naomi Baron (2008) calls "always-on," inseparable both fromtheir gadgets and one another (p. 8).
Para. 2: For Baron, Palfrey, and Emory University English professor Mark Bauerlein, the fact that teens live at least partially in avirtual world is troubling. Baron worries that all this online writing that teens do is weakening their ability to use writtenlanguage effectively. Palfrey is concerned that the sometimes risqué traces of Digital Natives' personal lives posted on Facebook,in forums, and other public places online expose them to both humiliation and danger (2008, p. 7). Bauerlein thinks provocativelythat today's online teens are "the dumbest generation" yet, precisely because their online connections to one another wrap themin a growth-stunting "generational cocoon" (2008, p. 10).
Para. 3: It is undeniable that today's teens (well, those with the financial wherewithal to afford pricey smartphones and dataplans) live in a media/technology–rich environment that is shaping who they are, how they think, and what they see as theirpurpose in life. Bauerlein is correct that teens' virtual activities reflect their powerfully absorbing interest in the dynamics andculture of teen life. John Palfrey gets it right when he writes that "new digital technologies—computers, cellphones, Sidekicks—are primary mediators of human-to-human connections. They have created a 24/7 network that blends the human with thetechnical to a degree we haven't experienced before, and it is transforming human relationships in fundamental ways" (2008, pp.4–5). What is more, their digital connectedness is transforming how knowledge is created and distributed, and how teaching andlearning happen.
Para. 4: But Baron, Palfrey, and Bauerlein are wrong to view this moment of admittedly transformative change in humancommunications as a historic cusp, a moment threatening the collapse of reason, economy, and civic virtue. Despite what Palfreywrites, we are not "at a crossroads." There are more than "two possible paths before us—one in which we destroy what is greatabout the Internet, and one in which we make smart choices and head towards a bright future in a digital age" (2008, p. 7).While Palfrey is almost right that the "choices we are making now will govern how our children and grandchildren live their livesin many important ways," it is important not to think about the transformations that come with our move into the digital worldin the either/or terms of moral panic (2008, p. 7).
When you write your synthesis, remember to attribute ideas to the researcher from whom you borrowed them. In the four paragraphs above,notice how many times the names Baron, Palfrey, and Bauerlein are repeated. Also, notice how the credentials of each researcher arepresented at least once in the sequence. You will also want to use the specialized language that you find in texts you are synthesizing.Whenever possible, weave the quoted passages into sentences of your own, as Emma does throughout her synthesis. If you use thesestrategies, your reader should be able to easily distinguish between the views and ideas of other writers and yours.
Using Research to Answer Supporting and Essential Questions
With her project definition, well-designed set of sources, reading notes, and synthesis maps, Emma is ready to begin to try tentativelyanswering her supporting questions using the ideas, concepts, cases, and interpretive frameworks she finds in her sources. Her first step is touse these resources to formulate specific answers to her supporting questions. She should try to answer her questions as definitively aspossible, presenting supporting data and analysis to be persuasive. She must also convey the full range of informed opinion represented in theconversation—including divergent points of view, alternative explanations, and areas of controversy, as well as the data and analysis supportingthese alternative views. As she is answering her supporting questions, she should also start thinking about what these tentative answerssuggest about elements of her essential question. Periodically, she should try to answer her essential question by writing a holistic account ofher research and the conversation to which she has listened.
As Emma tries to explain what she thinks is happening when teen girls use Facebook within the context of their friendships and romanticrelationships, she will develop ideas of her own and begin to recognize gaps in her research. For example, Emma has no peer reviewedresearch explaining the developmental dynamics underpinning teen girls' formation of friendships and romantic relationships. While Emma hasmuch research remaining, from here on out, the research work of Phase II is to repeat the process detailed above as her ideas evolve and gapsappear. Eventually, as she refines her stock of ideas, cases, and interpretive concepts; tests varying explanations; and develops her set ofsources, she will arrive at a conviction that she knows why, in developmental terms, teen girls use the Internet to socialize with peers andromantic interests. She will be ready, that is, to formulate a thesis-driven argument. You will learn much more about thesis-driven researcharguments and the characteristics of good theses in Chapters 5 and 6, but to begin it is sufficient to understand that a thesis must do morethan prove a point. It must be formulated as a response to one or more researchers' positions on issues driving the existing conversation.
Formulating a Thesis
In order for Emma's thesis to be responsive to the discussion, her work must be situated in the arguments of others. So far, Emma has decidedthat the "addiction" explanation of teen social network site usage obscures more than it reveals. She has also decided that a multidisciplinaryexplanation rooted in teen psychology and sociality and the affordances of social network sites reveals a lot about why and how teen girls usesocial network sites such as Facebook to seek status, try on identities, and mediate relationships. Her thesis paragraph would need to capturethese elements of her thinking. Here is what the lead-in to her thesis might look like.
Lead-In: While early researchers and popular articles understand teen use of the Internet in terms of addiction, recent studies bysociologists danah boyd [sic], Sonia Livingstone, and others have proposed an explanatory model that suggests that theaffordances of social network sites such as Facebook are enabling teens to meet developmental needs. The value of this researchis that, unlike previous research, it is based on surveys, interviews, and direct observation of teens.
Now that she has declared her dissent from the addiction model, and her consent for a developmental model, the next step is for Emma toestablish how her own line of inquiry responds to an active question in the literature. It might look something like this:
Line of Inquiry: Since empirical research on teen use of the Internet is relatively new, most studies treat both teen boys and girls.In order to better understand the specific nuances of teenage girls' use of social network sites, I will synthesize the currentliterature on teen girls' developmental imperatives and the affordances of social network sites to explain how girls use theaffordances of social network sites to navigate the challenges of teen friendships and romantic relationships.
With this, Emma narrows her focus, establishes her method of research, and forges a key connection between the technology and teen girls'developmental imperatives. Next is to issue her thesis statement:
Thesis: Whereas parents and journalists explain teen girls' Internet use in terms of addiction, I argue that the multimediaaffordances of Facebook (Timeline, status updates, links, photo posting, and tagging) feed into a gender-specific imperative forteen girls to "compose" an image of themselves that responds to their own needs and the expectations of their peers. Further, Iargue that this image both reflects an ideal image of themselves and the way individual girls are seen by their peer group.Finally, I argue that parents who view their daughters' images misinterpret this online self-image, seeing them as documentaryimages instead of peer-negotiated projections.
The last part of the paragraph is to explain the significance of the thesis.
Significance: If my arguments are correct, then we can better understand the gender-specific challenges teen girls face as theyseek to establish an emerging adult identity for their peer group, and work to separate from the self rooted in the family setting.Moreover, we can better help parents interpret their daughters' Timelines in light of the developmental imperatives they express.
Having reviewed the literature well enough to formulate such a thesis, Emma is ready to begin using her project description; answers toessential and supporting questions; and her reading notes, synthesis tables or concept maps, to draft an essay. Later chapters in this book willtrack Emma's progress through the drafting, revision, and editing stages of the project.
How to Write a Thesis Paragraph
1. Establish the part of the conversation you want to work in with "lead-in" sentences.
2. Establish your own line of inquiry as a response to the conversation.
3. Articulate your thesis as a response to conventional wisdom and established research.
4. Explain the significance of your thesis—why does it matter if you are right?
By the end of this phase of the research project, you will have equipped yourself to be a knowledgeable participant in discussions on yourtopic. You should have well-formed questions, plenty of examples and cases to draw on as evidence, multiple partners-in-inquiry (includingthose who may disagree with you), and an interpretive framework to help you determine the significance and meaning of your analysis.Chapter 5 will go much more into depth about theses and their structures.