discussion 5

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Chapter  Seven  

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Learning  Objec3ves  

LO.1 Describe perception in terms of the information-processing model.

LO.2 Summarize the key managerial implications of social perception.

LO.3 Discuss the process of stereotype formation. LO.4 Summarize the managerial challenges and

recommendations of sex role, age, racial, ethnic, and disability stereotypes.

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Learning  Objec3ves  (cont.)  

LO.5 Describe and contrast the Pygmalion effect, the Galatea effect, and the Golem effect.

LO.6 Discuss how the model of the self-fulfilling prophecy is expected to work.

LO.7 Explain, according to Kelley’s model, how external and internal causal attributions are formulated.

LO.8 Contrast the fundamental attribution bias and the self-serving bias.

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An  Informa3on  Processing     Model  of  Percep3on  

!  Perception 9  cogni3ve  process  that   enables  us  to   interpret  and   understand  our   surroundings  

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Percep3on:  An  Informa3on-­‐ Processing  Model  

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Stage  1:  Selec3ve  AEen3on/ Comprehension  

!  Attention 9  Process of becoming consciously aware of

something or someone

People pay attention to salient stimuli !  Salient

9  something that stands out from context

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Stage  2:  Encoding  and   Simplifica3on  

!  Schema 9  Represents a person’s mental picture or

summary of a particular event or type of stimulus

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Restaurant  Schema  

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Stage  3:  Storage  and  Reten3on  

!  Event memory 9  information about both specific and general

events !  Semantic memory

9  general knowledge about the world, mental dictionary of concepts

!  Person memory 9  information about a single individual or groups

of people

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Stage  4:  Retrieval  and  Response  

!  Decisions are based on: 9  The process of drawing on, interpreting, and

integrating categorical information stored in long-term memory

9  Retrieving a summary judgment that was already made

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Managerial  Implica3ons:  Hiring  

!  Interviewers make hiring decisions based on their impression of how an applicant fits the perceived requirements of a job and on the basis of implicit cognition

!  Implicit cognition 9  represents any thoughts or beliefs that are

automatically activated from memory without our conscious awareness.

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Managerial  Implica3ons:     Performance  Appraisal  

!  Important for managers to accurately identify the behavioral characteristics and results indicative of good performance

!  Characteristics serve as the benchmarks for evaluating employee performance

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Managerial  Implica3ons:   Leadership  

!  Good leaders exhibit the following behaviors: 9  Assigning specific tasks to group members 9  Telling others they had done well 9  Setting specific goals for the group

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Stereotypes:  Percep3ons   about  Groups  of  People  

!  Stereotype 9  An individual’s set of beliefs about the

characteristics or attributes of a group !  Not always negative !  May or may

not be accurate

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Stereotypes:  Percep3ons   about  Groups  of  People  

!  It is important to remember that stereotypes are a fundamental component of the perception process and we use them to help process the large amount of information that bombards us daily.

!  It is not immoral or bad to possess stereotypes !  Inappropriate use of stereotypes can lead to poor

decisions

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Stereotyping  Process  

1.  Categorize people into groups according to various criteria

2.  Infer that all people within a category possess the same traits

3.  Form expectations of others and interpret their behavior according to our stereotypes

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Stereotyping  Process  

4.  Stereotypes are maintained by: –  Overestimating the frequency of stereotypic

behavior exhibited by others –  Incorrectly explaining expected and

unexpected behaviors –  Differentiating minority individuals from oneself

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Commonly  Found  Perceptual  Errors  

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Sex-­‐Role  Stereotypes  

!  Sex-role stereotype 9  the belief that differing traits and abilities make

men and women particularly well suited to different roles

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Sex-­‐Role  Stereotypes  

1. People often prefer male bosses 2. Women have a hard time being perceived

as an effective leader 3. Women of color are more negatively

affected by sex-role stereotypes than white women or men in general

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Age  Stereotypes  

!  Age stereotypes reinforce age discrimination because of their negative orientation.

!  Long-standing age stereotypes depict older workers as less satisfied, not as involved with their work, less motivated, not as committed

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Age  Stereotypes  

!  Research shows that as age increases so does employees’ job satisfaction, job involvement, internal work motivation, and organizational commitment.

!  Moreover, older workers are not more accident prone.

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Racial  and  Ethnic  Stereotypes  

!  Micro aggressions 9  represent “biased thoughts, attitudes, and

feelings” that exist at an unconscious level !  Stereotype threat

9  refers to the ‘predicament’ in which members of a social group ‘must deal with the possibility of being judged or treated stereotypically, or of doing something that would confirm the stereotype.’”

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Managerial  Challenges  and   Recommenda3ons  

!  An organization first needs to inform its workforce about the problem of stereotyping through employee education and training

!  Managers need to identify valid individual differences that differentiate between successful and unsuccessful performers.

!  Remove promotional barriers for men and women, people of color, and persons with disabilities

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Self-­‐Fulfilling  Prophecy:   The  Pygmalion  Effect  

!  Self-fulfilling prophecy 9  someone’s high expectations for another

person result in high performance for that person

9  Also known as Pygmalion effect

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A  Model  of  the  Self-­‐Fulfilling   Prophecy  

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Self-­‐Fulfilling  Prophecy  

!  Galatea effect 9  occurs when an individual’s high self-

expectations for him- or herself lead to high performance

!  Golem effect 9  a loss in performance resulting from low leader

expectations

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PuTng  the  Self-­‐Fulfilling   Prophecy  to  Work  

1.  Recognize that everyone has the potential to increase his or her performance.

2.  Set high performance goals. 3.  Positively reinforce employees for a job well

done. 4.  Provide frequent feedback that conveys a belief

in employees’ ability to complete their tasks. 5.  Give employees the opportunity to experience

increasingly challenging tasks and projects.

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PuTng  the  Self-­‐Fulfilling   Prophecy  to  Work  

6.  Communicate by using facial expressions, voice intonations, body language, and encouraging comments that reflect high expectations.

7.  Provide employees with the input, information, and resources they need to achieve their goals.

8.  Introduce new employees as if they have outstanding potential.

9.  Encourage employees to stay focused on the present moment and not to worry about negative past events.

10. Help employees master key skills and tasks.

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Causal  AEribu3ons  

!  Causal Attributions 9  suspected  or  inferred   causes  of  behavior  

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Performance  Charts  

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Kelley’s  Model  of  AEribu3on  

Behavior can be attributed either to: !  Internal factors within a person (such as ability) or to: !  External behavior within the environment (such as a difficult task)

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Kelley’s  Model  of  AEribu3on  

!  Consensus 9  involves a comparison of an individual’s

behavior with that of his peers. !  Distinctiveness

9  involves comparing a person’s behavior on one task with the behavior from other tasks.

!  Consistency 9  determined by judging if the individual’s

performance on a given task is consistent over time.

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AEribu3onal  Tendencies  

!  Fundamental attribution bias 9  Reflects one’s tendency to attribute another

person’s behavior to his or her personal characteristics, as opposed to situational factors.

!  Self-serving bias 9  Represents one’s tendency to take more

personal responsibility for success than for failure.

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Managerial  Implica3ons  

!  One study revealed that managers gave employees more immediate, frequent, and negative feedback when they attributed their performance to low effort.

!  A second study indicated that managers tended to transfer employees whose poor performance was attributed to a lack of ability.

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Managerial  Implica3ons  

!  Men and women have different attributions regarding the causes of being promoted

!  Managers tend to disproportionately attribute behavior to internal causes that can result in inaccurate evaluations of performance, leading to reduced employee motivation