Police & Society

The Reform Era

By the 1920s, attempts to reform local policing and to some degree, state and federal 1960s was most significant period in the development of policing in the United States, because it the foundations for the professionalization of law le definitions. As used here it means an attempt to improve police behavior and performance a code ethics improving selection of police departments. It also means that training, and management professions, would focus on core rather than performing a kaleidoscope of this core strategy would become crime control. coupled For the police Professionalism is discussed in more in Chapter 11 During this period a reform model (also called the professional, bureaucratic, legalistic, quasi- or semi-military model) of policing began to dominate thinking about police work. Essentially, it means that the police-community relationship should be based on law and departmental policy because police (both as organizations and as individuals) should not be unduly influenced by politics or personal considerations when making decisions. One of the most important aspects of the legalistic model is related to the mission of the police. Advocates of this model thought that crime fighting should be the primary purpose of the police. They used this idea to mobilize support for their reforms and to improve the public image of the police (Kelling and Moore 1988). The police, in effect, began to emphasize the most dramatic aspects of their work Uohnson 1981, 105-189). Between about 1920 and the mid-1960s, many police departments changed dramatically in the United States. Political meddling was substantially, but not entirely, replaced by effi cient and centralized management and a commitment to professionalism. This change was the result of European developments in criminalistics, (2) changes in American so and politics, and (3) the growth of the police reform movement.

American society and politics also that the dev elop more emphasis on industrial and consumer goods and rail and automobile transportation improved, more and more people moved to th The change as increasing numbers of Spanish-speaking immigrants and blacks from the rural unskilled, poor, powerless, and in great need south Many of these were services (Johnson 1981, 105-189) The Spanish-speaking and black neighborhoods were by extensive crime began to neighborhoods and troublesome areas in which to Given the fact that beginning with and long history of racist behavior the tension between minority grou the pol ncreased and became an important factor in the numerous urban riots of th century. These riots began in East St. Louis in 1917 and were by 1919 at least seven during World War II, and numerous riots in the 1960s. were major to serious disorders in 1967 alone (National Advisory Commission 1968, 35-206) Although there were many reasons for these riots, a significant factor was the behavior of police officers in minority neighborhoods In the newly established suburban communities, the mostly white, middle-class inhabit ants expected that government services would be based on the principles of efficiency and quality. The police were expected to be well trained and courteous, use the best equipment and employ the latest management techniques. Many ofthe reform ideas of the Progressive Era and the legalistic model of policing had a positive impact on these communities before they gained influence in larger, older cities, where a tradition of political interference was difficult to change. Among the more developments during this period was the emergence of th commission approach to reform. When there was sufficient concern about poli behavior community, prominent citizens and experts were appointed to commissions to conduct investigations and for change. Commissions were formed both the local and the national level.

In 1919, the Chicago Crime Commission was established to supervise the criminal jus tice system in Chicago. Unlike commissions created during the following decade, the one in Chicago became permanent. By 1931, 7 local, 16 state, and 2 national crime commissions had been established to investigate the police. Perhaps the best known of these was the National Commission on Law Observance, established by President Herbert Hoover in 1929. It was also known as the WickershamCommission, for the man who headed the investigation. In 1931 the comm on published 14 volumes, two of which were about the police. The 12 other volumes were concerned with other aspects of crime and the crimi nal justice system. August Vollmer was the principal police consultant to the Wickersham Commission and author of the major report on the police (Walker 197 identified what he thought were the most important problems in lav report enforcement xcessive political influence, inadequate leadership and management, ineffec recruitment and training, and insufficient use of the latest advances in science and technology. By 1931, it was widely accepted that these the problems that needed to be ness, in police work. another report by the police overshadowed Vollmer's recommendations. The report identified widespread police abuses, including the use of brutality, to secure confessions (Walker 1977, 128-134) After the Wickersham Commission published its reports, there was at least the begin ning of a national consensus on the direction for the professionalization of the police, essentially toward a legalistic model in which laws and rules were enforced without regard to politics by well-trained and scientifically proficient, dedicated, honest employees who worked in a centralized department that was primarily concerned with crime fighting. Many police departments, however, remained substantially political well into the 1960s One of the most significant events ofthe twentieth century-the Great Depression of the 1930s- actually made police reform easier. With reduced funds available, there was less opposition to centralizing the police, and in many cities some local precinct stations were closed to save money. Centralization made it easier for chiefs of police to control their officers and also resulted in less meddling by politicians. In addition, for the first time, well educated, middle-class Americans became interested in police work as a career because it offered job security Johnson 1981. 105-189)