"For enghanyez"

11 Selecting and Leading the Project Team

Abel Mitja Varela/E+/Getty Images

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Explain the human resource management process and its role in project management.

• Analyze the leadership skills a project manager must have.

• Describe the types of teams found in project management and their roles.

• Assess the best ways to select and manage project teams.

CO_CRD

CN

CT

CO_LO

CO_TX

CO_BL

co-cn

co-cr

co-box

co-intro

co-photo

co

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 327 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Introduction

Pretest

1. When qualified employees are chosen for a project based on their ability to complete the work, they require training and development to become competent team members. a. True b. False

2. Team members tend to prefer bad decisions made by project managers over no decisions at all. a. True b. False

3. It is possible for project teams to communicate too much. a. True b. False

4. The primary reason that diversity is important in high-performance teams is that it aligns the team with company policy and with the law. a. True b. False

5. To staff project teams, project managers should first seek out high performers within the organization who have good reputations. a. True b. False

Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

Introduction Have you ever been in a workplace that seemed to have no leadership or direction? The expe- rience is frustrating to say the least because there is a natural tendency in organizations to look for rational, directed work with a purpose. This chapter deals with the issue of how project managers develop and lead teams, as well as what is involved in giving direction to the project team while simultaneously allowing team members to make their own decisions.

This chapter addresses perhaps the most critical factor in project success—team collabo- ration. None of the processes, tools, and techniques explored in earlier chapters can create value in project management systems without people in teams. People working together make projects and processes successful, improve profit margins, and meet organizational goals.

It is important to see a project team, and any working team, as a system. Systems theory is the theoretical framework for teamwork. Borrowing from mechanical theory, a system is defined as a series of parts with a common purpose. Turning to sociology, a human activity system is a series of humans working together with a common purpose. Systems function best when all the parts fulfill their roles and the overall effect is a high-performance system. However, if a system is not regularly “charged,” it goes into disorder; thus, the analogy that if a project team is not regularly energized, its performance suffers.

H1

sec_n sec_t

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 328 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.1 Human Resource Management and Project Teams

Additionally, teams that operate with diverse personnel with different backgrounds, cultures, races, genders, and training tend to generate more options and alternatives—but also some- times, more tension (Gardenswartz & Rowe, 2008).

This chapter also discusses how the project manager selects and leads his or her team. The material comes from teamwork concepts, behavioral theory, and best practices. However, it is important to see that studying and understanding project team behavior and performance is an art, rather than a science. In other words, people are sometimes unpredictable and behave in unanticipated and counterintuitive ways, especially in the stressful working environment of project management. Therefore, selecting, leading, and inspiring team members is no small challenge, and there are no guarantees.

11.1 Human Resource Management and Project Teams The field that was once called personnel management has been transformed into what is now called human resource management. Previously, employees were seen as just another resource to complete job tasks, but now the human resource management director typically sees them as investments in company assets. Studies have proved that companies that invest in people and use best practices in the modern human resource field increase their value sub- stantially over those that do not employ the human resource management theme (Phillips & Gully, 2014).

The Importance of Building the Right Project Team

A national human resource management research company, Watson Wyatt, found that increases in market value are expected with the use of such practices as the increase in rewards and accountability, creation of collegial and flexible workplaces, recruiting and retention excellence, effective communications, and the use of human resource technologies (Bilmes & Gould, 2009).

This finding has important implications for project management. It means that selecting and developing employees for a project team is not just a routine process to be managed by the personnel office, but rather a core leadership responsibility of project management, with major impacts on project value and delivery. In effect, none of the tools and techniques of project management are as important as the people who employ them.

This movement toward considering people to be long-term investments in the company is not without its challenges to project managers. With the advent of more career mobility, people are not likely to spend their entire careers with one company or agency. More and more com- panies no longer plan long-term commitment and support to their workforce and are moving away from providing traditional benefits such as health care, savings accounts, and support for education and training. Younger workers are encouraged to look at themselves as “brand you,” with the mindset that they are independent contractors, should take care of themselves, and should not depend on employers to bring them along.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 329 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.1 Human Resource Management and Project Teams

This trend toward individual responsi- bility and away from long-term employer commitment can be positive, by encour- aging more personal accountability and responsibility, but can also work against developing high-performance project teams.

Another complicating factor in acquir- ing and developing a project team is that technology and demograph- ics are changing the kinds of people who are sought out for project teams. The younger the team member, the more likely it is that he or she will be technologically proficient, especially in the use of mobile communication systems and various software and operating systems (Thomas, 2011).

Technical experts are now certified in various systems such as the Microsoft Office® suite; thus, searching for team members in technical projects involves researching certifications and credentials. But these certifications do not guarantee that these people are good col- laborators and communicators. Less aptitude for direct face-to-face communication can be a problem in some projects in which direct interpersonal communication is required.

The PMBOK Guideline

The PMBOK guideline on human resource management is extensive and process oriented; it presents key project human resource management processes such as planning human resource management, as well as acquiring, developing, and managing the project team (Proj- ect Management Institute, 2013).

Plan Human Resource Management Planning human resource management is the process of organizing the project team and staffing plan, and defining staff member roles, responsibilities, and skills. Decisions on the team are to be integrated with the WBS so that team composition is ultimately grounded in the work to be done, not simply in candidate credentials and interests. Typically, one is not assigned to a project team requiring an electronic engineer simply because of credentials. Rather, team assignment is based on the belief that the employee or contractor can complete the work outlined in the WBS.

Be aware that there is a difference between role and task. A task is a discrete piece of work with clear outputs and timelines. Tasks come from the WBS, are listed in the Gantt chart with durations and linkages, and may be further detailed in a separate task description that defines exactly what is required in the task.

monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock

Several factors complicate the process of selecting the right candidates for a project team.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 330 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.1 Human Resource Management and Project Teams

On the other hand, a role is a team-wide function that goes beyond tasking. Roles are based on relationships and teamwork. For instance, an electronics engineer may be assigned a task of designing a low-voltage sensing instrument for automobile engines but may also be assigned the role of overseeing the quality of all electronic devices and systems in the project across several tasks and functions. Another role would be a task leader in charge of several tasks and subtasks.

Acquire Project Team The term acquire is usually associated with things rather than people, but it is used here for a reason. If human capital is a key contributor to the resources and assets of the enterprise and is therefore an investment in any project undertaken by the enterprise, then finding and selecting members of a project team can be seen as a resource acquisition transaction. Project teams represent resources and are treated that way. Acquisition is the first step in making sure the enterprise has the right people and is committed to protecting its investment by developing and empowering the team to grow and perform.

Develop Project Team Developing the project team is the process of expanding the capacity of team members and the team as a whole to enhance project performance. This activity involves training, both indi- vidual and team based, as well as providing opportunities for team members to pursue their own personal and professional development.

Manage Project Team Managing the project team entails activating the team, making assignments, resolving issues, tracking performance, and managing change. This is a hands-on function in most project envi- ronments and requires the project manager to be closely aligned with the team and able to anticipate issues and resolve them.

In the real world you will not always see this kind of structure to the process, because project managers do not have the time or resources to develop the formal documentation behind it. But the underlying themes in the PMBOK guideline are very important—perhaps more important than anything else in assuring a successful project:

1. Take the time to do some solid planning based on the project goals and work break- down structure to figure out what kinds of people requirements you face in complet- ing a project successfully.

2. Acquire team members who meet those requirements and who are good invest- ments for the company, either inside or externally through contracting mechanisms.

3. Do not hire people or assign people to project teams just because they are available. 4. Spend time and resources developing these people you select for a team into compe-

tent performers and good team players.

This section explored the guideline on human resources in project management promoted by the Project Management Institute. The following section will address the personal skills required of the modern project manager.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 331 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.2 Developing Project Manager Skills

11.2 Developing Project Manager Skills The PMBOK contains an appendix that outlines the skills necessary to be a good project man- ager. The PMBOK blends the terms leadership and management in defining skills, implying that the project manager is expected to play both roles. This listing of skills, while useful as a starting point for understanding how teams work, is not clearly explained in practical terms.

Some of the concepts in this field, such as leadership, management, and communication, have lost their meaning because they are used to describe so many different behaviors. To identify how these skills apply in a project management context, the following is a list of PMBOK roles accompanied by a practical example of how the term might apply in a project management team.

Leadership

Leadership involves enabling others to work as a team and focusing them on a common goal. Leaders encompass trust and respect, have vision, serve as mentors, and evaluate project per- formance. Sometimes leadership is overestimated in project management because projects are more focused on resources, task completion, and delivery, rather than inspired creativity based on a leader’s vision. Some would say that leadership is more important in generating and articulating alternative projects in an enterprise portfolio, and that selection and man- agement of approved projects is a traditional management challenge.

In the end, it is the project manager who leads the project team, sometimes with support of the PMO staff that some organizations create to support projects and their teams with infor- mation and team development. Inherent in this leadership role is a dilemma facing every project manager. How much does the project manager get involved in the details of the proj- ect and how much does the project manager step away from the project team in order to lead it? This decision—whether to lead or to manage—is a function of the unique characteristics of each project and team, but these roles have different outcomes.

Leadership involves inspiring and motivating the team through vision and purpose. Leaders articulate the broad purposes and benefits of a project, integrate the project into the success of the enterprise as a whole, stimulate high energy and performance in the team, and give meaning to the individual roles of all project team members. Leadership implies the capac- ity to delegate and empower the team. Leaders can see the broad benefits and outcomes of a project and sell it to upper management, customers, and stakeholders.

Managing is different from leadership. Management implies control and constant involve- ment in guiding project work and making decisions. Managers are active players in day-to-day project activities who monitor performance and resource usage and have continual commu- nication with the team and the customer. Management is hands-on work that implies a full understanding of what is going on, interpreting project metrics and feedback, and sometimes even “forcing” success through oversight, direction, tough decisions, and doing what needs to be done or doing something right when it has been done wrong.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 332 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.2 Developing Project Manager Skills

Project managers in the real world tend to be more managers than leaders and spend most of their time in the context of the project itself. They must ensure that short-term deliverables are produced, that project resources and contractors are controlled, that risks are mitigated, and that customers are happy. They would typically contend that they do not have time to “lead.” Most project managers are action oriented and look to their superiors or project spon- sors to provide leadership and perspective and to market the project to external stakeholders.

However, practically speaking, leadership is not some lofty, charismatic, and mystical behav- ior. Leadership is getting the team to perform together when it counts—whatever it takes. A good example would be the skill it takes to change the direction of a project team because of changes in customer requirements midstream. For instance, a customer communicates with the project manager halfway through a project to design a new school curriculum that the requirements must change to include a test bank and exams. The customer left this require- ment out of the original specifications but found out later that because the new core curricu- lum requires a test bank, the project must be updated.

The project manager successfully stops work on the project, brings the customer in to explain the reason for the change to the team, persuades the team that responding to this change is necessary, and then engages the team in working with the customer to execute a change order and new design, cost estimate, and schedule for the requirement. The project manager meets with each team member to explain the change as well as the impact on his or her particular task. The team goes along with the project manager out of respect, despite the hard work involved that disrupts what was a smooth-running team effort. That is leadership.

Team Building

Team building implies the capacity to help people work together, identify goals and team member roles, negotiate, resolve conflicts or problems by keeping the focus on issues rather than people, and reward team members for good performance.

The practical skill involved here is helping team members see how successful performance of their task is linked to the team’s success. This approach leverages the natural desire in most people to belong to cohesive, meaningful groups and builds the sense in each team member that the only way for everyone to succeed is for the team to succeed. The project manager skill that enables this team building is the capacity to demonstrate to the team, in the way the manager acts and makes decisions, what it takes to work in the team. If the project manager can work within the values and processes of the team—and shows it—then the team mem- bers will follow.

In the case of the curriculum project change order example, the project manager communi- cates the value of working together to meet new requirements, thus strengthening the col- lective action of the team in responding. This is done by bringing the team members together and reminding them that this is a team and that members of the team are expected to work together to get the best product the whole team can produce.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 333 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.2 Developing Project Manager Skills

Motivation

Motivation means obtaining team member commitments based on members’ values and the common goals of the project. Project leaders focus on job satisfaction, personal growth, and financial compensation as motivating factors.

The skill here is to articulate a vision for each team member of how it feels to be motivated and to work in a team. It involves demonstrating motivated behavior in order to promote similar behavior in the team, especially when there are difficulties with the project. Working hard illustrates motivation; thus, if the project manager works hard, the team tends to want to work hard. If the project manager demonstrates the motivation to do the right thing, the team will as well.

In our change order example, the project manager demonstrates motivation to meet the cus- tomer’s new requirements; thus, the team accepts the redirection and is similarly motivated. The project manager motivates the team by articulating the value of change, innovation, and adjustment to new customer requirements.

Communication

Communication is key because it improves relationships and provides the glue that keeps teams together. Communication implies collaboration, or working with team members to create common goals and required compromises. Project managers are expected to be good listeners, understanding and responding to different styles of communication and different motivations in a typical project team.

Communication is an overused and overworked concept. One is left sometimes thinking that any communication is good and no communication is bad, yet it is not that simple. The right communication—that delivers useful content—is indeed good, but too much communication regarding project issues or the wrong communication without useful content can undermine a team.

There are many different means of communication, including verbal, body language, behav- ior, and eye contact. And there are many avenues for communication, including eye-to-eye and new technologies like social networks and collaboration software. Sometimes a lack of verbal communication is effective because silence demonstrates the project manager’s trust in the team to take charge without direction. The skill is to be able to judge when to commu- nicate and what kind of communication is required.

Diversity also affects communication. There is a larger premium on listening to others because of their different viewpoints, as opposed to those you have heard from before or who are similar to you in background and worldview.

With the advent of virtual teams, whose members are located in different places around the country or across the world, the selection and management of project teams takes on another dimension. Virtual teams require a certain amount of self-confidence in their members and a

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 334 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.2 Developing Project Manager Skills

constant flow of useful project informa- tion, since actual face-to-face communi- cation cannot occur. The ubiquitous use of remote communication and mobile technologies for teleconferencing and other virtual platforms makes virtual teams easier to manage.

A growing number of today’s proj- ect teams operate in a global con- text, requiring an agile and flexible approach to communications, informa- tion exchange, and team relationships. In terms of communication, language barriers can be difficult to manage, sometimes slowing down the project flows and creating potential conflicts when messages are mixed or jumbled.

Information exchange in a global con- text involves potential differences in interpretation of project performance. For instance, team members from one culture might place a great deal of emphasis on keeping to the schedule, whereas team members from another culture may not attend to timelines and may worry more about quality or cost. Team relationships can be strained in virtual teams across coun- tries because team members can have contrasting values and priorities.

In the context of the change order case, it is important that the project manager is able to understand the customer change and then is willing to explain the change to the team. The medium and content of the communication is key. If the medium is effective, then the mes- sage has a chance of being understood. In this case the best medium or communication tool would be a meeting of the team, either face-to-face or through a teleconference. If the content is confusing and disrupting to the team, it is ineffective. If the content is clear and relevant, it can be effective. If it encourages collaboration and coordination in the team, it can be a major factor in team and project success.

Influence

Influencing involves leading by example and guiding team behavior toward consistency and effectiveness. A good measure of effective leadership and management is the extent to which the project manager has the personal and professional power to influence the team to accept plans and implement them.

In practical terms, influence goes two ways. The project manager influences the team to the extent that team members respond to direction. But sometimes they are adversely influenced, such as when project managers disengage from the team and disrupt its performance in some way. The skill is to avoid the wrong influence and promote the right influence that enhances the team’s performance. The skill also involves asking the team to communicate up to the project manager about what behavior influences in the right way. This is done by a project manager

monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock

Diversity—in age, gender, or ethnic background—can affect the quality of communications within a team.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 335 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.2 Developing Project Manager Skills

asking the team to provide feedback on how the project is being managed and specific sugges- tions on how the project manager can support the improvement of team performance.

Decision Making

Decision making implies the capacity to make decisions in the areas of time constraints, trust, quality, and acceptance. The four basic styles of decision making are command, consultation, consensus, and “coin flip.” The command approach uses positional authority to make deci- sions at the top. The consultation approach emphasizes participation of the team in decisions. Getting a consensus not only opens up the collaboration process, but also enables the team to make the decision. And the coin flip approach allows the decision to be made arbitrarily without much thought. Also involved in decision making is problem solving through problem definition, generating solutions, and evaluating outcomes.

Making the right decision can be difficult, and there are different dimensions of decisions. Small-scale decisions on resources, requirements, and schedule control are key to short-term effectiveness, whereas broad-scale decisions—such as the selection of projects to include in a portfolio of projects, selection of the project manager, composition of the project team, how to handle change, and how to manage stakeholders—may be more important to long-term success.

The team looks for clear decisions from the project manager and tends to tolerate miscalcula- tions or bad decisions more than no decision (Elgar, 2008). The key is to produce a vision of forward thinking and capacity to make decisions and face the consequences rather than allow the team to languish in uncertainty and ambiguity about key issues. For instance, in a project to produce a new furniture design, a team might be tentative about using radical new furni- ture ideas, but the project manager would encourage innovation by stating the importance of proactive marketing and looking to the future.

Cultural Awareness

Political and cultural awareness covers the capacity to understand organizational politics and power and to work in a culturally diverse work environment. This competence helps the project manager maneuver in the political dynamics of the company or agency and acquire the resources and support of top management for the project.

The practical skill in cultural awareness is the ability to understand a business culture and see how a project team fits into that culture. The potential problem is that a project manager may not understand the enterprise culture or may disagree with it and therefore encourage the team to adopt behaviors or take actions that are inconsistent with that culture.

For instance, if the broader enterprise culture encourages continuous collaboration and com- munication with the customer and has adopted modern customer relations techniques, a proj- ect team that fails to regularly report project progress to a customer will face top management disfavor. It is the project manager who is in charge of making sure this does not happen. If a customer requests a change order, the project manager must make sure the order is promptly issued and the action communicated back to the customer. The project manager must state that there is no room in a busy project to delay responding to change and getting on with the job.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 336 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.2 Developing Project Manager Skills

Negotiation

Negotiation is the skill of working toward compromise and agreement, requiring an under- standing of how to establish a win–win solution. The PMBOK sees negotiation as a key ability not only with the team but with customers and stakeholders as well.

The skill of negotiation begins with the willingness to discuss and change plans. A flexible approach to being agile and adaptive helps the project manager negotiate with the team, stakeholders, and customer. The skill is to understand the value of compromise but also to have an understanding of the bottom line in negotiations, or the point at which the project is being threatened by compromise. For instance, in negotiating on contract cost, if the customer demands in a negotiation that the budget be reduced by 10% without reducing the work, the project manager cannot accept that condition without communicating the consequences in work quality and customer satisfaction.

Trust

Trust building involves cooperation and consistency in dealing with project issues. Trust keeps negotiation and communication going. Without trust and reliability, communication and compromise are made more difficult.

In practice, trust is earned over time. This means that project teams do not necessarily trust project managers until the managers earn their trust. As a project manager, the skill in earn- ing trust is the demonstrated ability to be consistent over time, keep your word and follow through, and develop a sense that you will support the team when it counts. When a project manager “sells out” by giving away something that the team values in his or her negotiations, the team will lose trust in that manager.

In the same way, team members must earn the trust of the project manager by being reliable, open, and consistent. Trust is a two-edged sword in the sense that team members must be aware that their work quality and capacity is represented in negotiations and that they must be relied on to behave in predictable ways to implement the final negotiated solution.

Conflict Management

Conflict management addresses the process of resolving conflicting requirements, competi- tion for resources, and interpersonal problems. Project managers have to find ways to avoid interpersonal conflict and raise the level of debate and negotiation to issues and project- related problem solving.

The skill involved in conflict management is difficult to define, but team members know it when they see it. In other words, the team recognizes that conflicts such as those rooted in interpersonal differences or scarce resources typically occur in projects and that someone has to resolve them.

The managerial skill is the ability to spot conflict early, especially interpersonal conflict, and to handle the situation in a professional way. Sometimes this means intervening in the team’s

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 337 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.2 Developing Project Manager Skills

work, and sometimes it means staying out of the fray. When an intervention is called for, the project manager focuses on the issue, enabling the conflicting parties to find a reasonable and mutually acceptable compromise. This means working on the issue or problem and avoiding personal or interpersonal issues. The focus is on problem solving.

Coaching

Coaching involves helping team members increase their confidence and performance and build new skills and conceptual abilities. Good coaching skills help project managers work with low performers by either working toward improved performance or moving team mem- bers to other roles or projects.

The coaching skill is personal, involving a one-on-one exercise that is akin to parenting or mentoring. Mentoring is guiding an employee and modeling good behavior. Coaching and mentoring require the ability to read people’s behaviors and performance on the project and helping them see their own weaknesses and strengths. A coach is able to see an individual’s behavior and impact on the team as a whole better than the individual does. Good coaching inspires change and self-improvement because the coach can pinpoint causes of personal and performance issues and help the individual identify ways to resolve them.

Going Beyond Administration

Despite their importance, it is not enough for a project manager to evidence these leadership and management skills alone. Something more is expected in today’s project teams than a good administrator; team members want their leader to have a genuine and savvy under- standing of the project itself. This does not mean the project manager is expected to bring technical expertise to all aspects of the project, but rather that he or she respects and recog- nizes the technical work being accomplished.

Project team members are typically specialists in their field and look for a genuine and dem- onstrated appreciation in their project managers for their special contributions to the project. They expect that the project manager will know how the parts of the project deliverable are put together and especially how creative, innovative, and oftentimes tolerant team members have to be in some situations to complete the deliverable. The bottom line is that recogni- tion from a respected leader is more important than recognition from a leader simply going through the motions.

There is a tendency in technical and complex projects for the team to reject “bean counting.” To some, especially technical specialists, experts, and other highly trained professional staff, bean counters are administrative managers and generalists who sit in their offices, outside the dynamics of the project, and make decisions based on data and numbers without a full understanding of the project (Lutz, 2011).

This dynamic occurs when nontechnical people are assigned to be project managers or super- vise project management offices; review schedules, costs, and variances in project progress; and make determinations or recommendations such as whether to proceed to the next proj- ect phase or whether a project is on track or not. Auditors and administrative officers must

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 338 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.3 Types of Teams in Project Management

earn the respect of the project team—which may not be possible, given the dynamics and cultural influences in complex projects.

The Links Corporation Private Sector Case Study

Now that Links is getting closer to beginning the project process, the CEO, Phillip Johnson, HR VP, Sheila Chen, vice president of project management, Desiree Aubert, and human resources director, Shaun Frazier, have met to discuss the selection of a project manager for the manufacturing improvement project.

Johnson has chosen three candidates for project manager:

1. Bill Volker. Volker is a 20-year veteran of the company who works in manufacturing. He has a full understanding of the manufacturing system and the respect of the staff, though he does not have any project experience.

2. William Voder. Voder is a relatively new employee in the marketing and distribution unit who shows promise. He led a project on branding and came up with innovative brand concepts the company is using in its current product line.

3. Wendy Williams. Williams is a senior project engineer in charge of configuration management in manufacturing. She has a reputation of being reliable and easy to work with, but has no experience in manufacturing improvement projects and no project management background.

Aubert responds that they need a manager who earns the respect of manufacturing because without it, any project that is implemented will face an uphill battle, both internally and with customers. She favors Volker, since he has manufacturing experience. She feels that they can train him on project management but that they would have a hard time training the others on manufacturing systems to the point that the staff respects them.

Frazier disagrees. He feels that project management needs the skills of facilitation, mentor- ing, and coaching. He thinks they need to find someone who can collaborate with others and favors Williams because she has people skills that will bring the team together and help col- laborate with manufacturing.

Chen favors Voder because he has a sense of the outcomes of product development and satisfying the customer. His experience in marketing would allow him to guide the project team and manufacturing staff in the direction of a marketable product that will support the company’s bottom-line goals.

Question for Discussion

1. After reviewing the candidates for project manager and seeing the recommendations of the three executives, who would you choose? Explain your reasoning.

11.3 Types of Teams in Project Management There are many different types of project management teams. A project manager will typi- cally participate in several different teams—some inside the organization to support manage- ment, collaboration, and coordination of project activities and some outside the organization, such as network teams. A high-performance team is a team that performs at a very high level with limited direction. This section will explore these team types and how they operate.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 339 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.3 Types of Teams in Project Management

The Project Team

The project team includes all key task leaders and project staff assigned to the project. These staff members are dedicated more or less full time to the project. This is the key team that carries out the project and works together to bring the project through initiation, planning, execution, monitoring, and closeout. A team on an IT project might include full-time employ- ees and contractors, as follows:

• project manager, • head IT engineer, • systems administrator, • platform expert contractor, and • software engineer.

The project team also includes the core team, a subset of the project team.

The Core Team

According to the PMBOK, the core team, sometimes called the project management team, is a subgroup of the project team. Its members are responsible for management and leadership of the project and guiding the project through its cycle. The core group monitors team per- formance and morale; facilitates communication among team members, stakeholders, and project sponsors; and helps the team through its initial setup, functional organization, team building, and ongoing performance.

The core team also ensures that all project team members understand what the company or agency considers acceptable behavior and that they respect the prevailing ethical conduct codes. In an IT project, the core team might include the project manager, the head software engineer, and the IT administrator.

The core team creates a responsibility matrix, including team members and their tasks, roles, and other responsibilities. The purpose of the matrix is to show who is responsible for what. Table 11.1 shows an example from the IT case:

Table 11.1: Construction project responsibility matrix

Team member Title Task Role

Tameka Jones Project manager Prepare project management plan and direct implementation

Overall performance of the project team

Anya Hong Head software engineer Prepare and implement software plans and specifications

System integrity

Ben Horowitz IT administrator Supervise and sequence system operations and activities

Ensure efficient sequencing of informa- tion system

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 340 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.3 Types of Teams in Project Management

The core team is the key, inside team that is dedicated to the project. It is important that the core team works as a team and operates effectively. If it does not, then the chances of project success are lessened simply because it is this team that makes most of the key project decisions.

The Functional Management Team

Project managers typically work with functional managers to staff their projects and guide the quality of project work. In a matrix organization, functional managers are responsible for support in a traditional hierarchy. For instance, in a company designing and producing new electronic devices, the functional managers might be titled directors of electronics, software development, mechanical development, testing, and manufacturing.

These functional managers hire and develop staff members who are assigned to projects headed up by project managers. Functional managers are experts in key fields that sup- port project performance. Therefore, the project manager is in effect part of the functional management team because there must be close collaboration on assigning staff to projects and maintaining quality in the project work. Functional managers do performance apprais- als for their staff and serve as supervisors but consult with project managers on project performance issues.

In the IT project mentioned previously, the functional team would include the software and hardware buyer who reports to the procurement director, the human resources representa- tive who reports to the human resources director, the financial analyst who reports to the comptroller, and a representative of the project sponsor.

The Network Team

The project manager is also part of a network team that is composed of contractors, cus- tomers, stakeholders, regulatory agencies, and other organizations, all of which have direct or indirect interest in the project. The actors in the network may be important in marketing, financing, and distributing the project outputs and products. The role of the network team is to make sure the project meets standards and best practices in the field.

In the case of the IT project, the network team might include a professional IT association representative and an academic expert.

The Management Team

In some organizations the project manager is also part of the management team, sometimes called the “head shed,” which typically includes the chief operating officer, vice presidents, project sponsor, and functional and branch managers. The management team is the collection of top leaders in the project organization. In this team the project manager exchanges proj- ect information and reports, ensures consistency and integration of the project with other company portfolios and related activities, and participates in phase-gate reviews to move the project from one phase to another.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 341 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.3 Types of Teams in Project Management

This model may not be the case in all organizations, because in some organizations the project manager would be considered part of middle, operating management and not top manage- ment. This situation is changing in some organizations as they reduce middle management and become “flatter” in their structure, with more and more managers and professionals reporting directly to the chief executive officer or chief operating officer.

The management team in an IT project could include the company chief executive officer or chief operating officer, a special assistant in the front office, and the vice presidents or senior officers in charge of operations, acquisition, programs, finance, research and development, and human resources.

Do not let this discussion of the kinds of project teams in an ideal world confuse you about project teams. Project teams are usually managed and guided by what might be called the de facto team that includes staff members whom the project manager trusts. These staff mem- bers may or may not come from the full-time staff assigned to the project, and they may be located in a functional department or in top management, or even in the customer’s or con- sultant’s staff. This informal team is composed of people who feel comfortable working with each other and who are loyal to each other based on past experiences.

In many complex projects, project managers, like top managers, tend to favor working with those who are loyal to and supportive of them (Burge, 2005). This informal inner circle of staff will collaborate despite the formal assignments and technical capacities of the team. Sometimes this kind of de facto team structure is effective in delivering despite the risks and problems, but sometimes this dynamic is troubling to the more formally assigned project team and can be divisive in the end, because those not in the inner circle begin to lower their performance and may even undermine the team’s efforts (Burge, 2005).

State Department of Health and Human Services Public Sector Case Study

We return to HHS as the secretary, Robert Mikawa, assistant secretary for programs, Rebecca Dawson, assistant secretary for human resources, Duncan George, and director of programs, Gilbert Ching, meet to discuss who should be project manager for the digital health records project.

Mikawa begins by saying that he has chosen three candidates to interview for the project manager position. They are:

1. John Hummer. Hummer has a PhD in public health from Harvard University and was recommended by the public health information staff. He has extensive knowledge about public health but little experience in health care systems or IT.

2. Betty Low Parson. Parson is a project manager in the IT department. She is well versed in information systems security and has a good grasp of their network and IT systems in general. She does not have health records system experience.

3. William James. James is a retired program manager with the health records unit and has been working on a prototype for the digital health records system project. He is familiar with this project and helped design and promote it within the department.

(continued)

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 342 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.3 Types of Teams in Project Management

Dawson feels that they should select Hummer because he has a public health background and will earn the respect of their health services stakeholders. He can be trained on proj- ect management.

George feels that they should first decide what they want, not who they want. He wants to outline the behaviors and actions that they expect the manager to demonstrate and then define a profile of a leader who can fill that need. However, if he had to choose someone, he would favor Parson because of her IT experience.

Finally, Ching likes James because he has a public health background and project manager experience. James does not have the best people skills, but Ching believes these can be improved and that James will be able to work with their stakeholders.

George jumps in and suggests that they use behavioral interviewing to choose the project manager. They would ask each candidate to respond to different scenarios and discuss what they would do and why, in order to test their vision of the job and its challenges. Once they see the candidates in action, they will have a better idea of whom to choose for the position.

Question for Discussion

1. After reviewing the candidates for the health records system project and seeing the recommendation of the three department officials, what would you do if you were Mikawa?

State Department of Health and Human Services Public Sector Case Study (continued)

High-Performance Teams

Every project manager wants to develop a high-performance team, a team that performs at its highest potential and delivers to the customer. This type of team works together seam- lessly, has the commitment of its members to common goals, demonstrates willingness and ability to collaborate and innovate, is efficient in the use of resources, and produces superior results and quality products. The key to high-performance teams is in how the relationships and competencies of its members are integrated. A high-performance team has attributes such as clear goals, positive relationships, mutual trust, and effective decisions (Nir, 2013).

Clear Goals and Plans If the project goals and project management plans are clear, the team knows where it is going. For instance, if the goal is to produce a deliverable that satisfies the customer, the goal may be admirable but is not clear because customers change their minds. On the other hand, if the goal is to meet or exceed the requirements document, this goal is clear because everyone knows exactly what is outlined in that document.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 343 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.3 Types of Teams in Project Management

Effective Communication The team communicates successfully on project issues. Messages between team members are received in a positive way, and communication is largely limited to project-related issues. There is a professional tone among team members that indicates they are there to do a job.

Positive Relationships The high-performance team is more than the sum of its parts. This dynamic is visible as team members collaborate, communicate regularly, and fill in for each other. Relationships are built on interdependence and commitment to quality deliverables that exceed cus- tomer requirements.

Clear Roles and Responsibilities Team managers know their task assignments, but they also understand their roles and responsibilities. There is a difference between task, role, and responsibility. Recall that the task is the work to produce on a particular component or intermediate output, the role is a particular contribution to the team, and the responsibility is accountability for meeting proj- ect timeline and quality objectives.

For instance, an electrical engineer could be assigned a task, role, and responsibility simul- taneously. She could be tasked to produce a high-voltage instrument for testing that meets requirements, be expected to play the role of coach and mentor to more junior electrical engi- neers on the project, and have the responsibility to meet timeline and quality requirements.

Mutual Trust Trust is confidence in how other team members will perform. If the trust is mutual, all team members trust each other to do what they are supposed to do and to support team members when appropriate.

Effective Decisions Here, the team seems to make good decisions when necessary, such as by generating a formal change order to record a product change even though the order might not be necessary, or reporting a quality problem to the project manager despite the risk the team takes in raising negative information to management.

Promotion of Diversity Diversity is the extent of variation in the team in terms of culture, gender, race, background, training, and education. The more diversity, the more likely it is there will be a rich mix of views and alternatives discussed in the team, but also more conflict if differences are not handled effectively.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 344 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.4 Selecting and Managing Project Teams

Successful Conflict Management Here team members demonstrate that they can resolve conflicts openly and fairly by listening to each other and respecting alternative views.

Development of Opportunity and Recognition Team members encourage recognition of their colleagues and willingly take advantage of development and training opportunities to improve their competencies.

11.4 Selecting and Managing Project Teams Selecting the right people for a project team and managing them effectively is important. If the right people are not on the team, there will be tasks that are not conducted properly. If the team is not effectively managed, its potential for success will be limited because the members do not collaborate and coordinate their work.

Selecting Project Teams

There is much written about project teams, but there are a few key points to consider as you look at how to select a project team.

There is a tendency to select project team members based on who they are rather than on what is needed. In other words, the way a project manager approaches the selection process is important, and the first step is determining what is needed in terms of talent, proven exper- tise, background, personality, and availability.

For instance, if a website software engineer is needed to perform a project task but there is not one on staff, does the project manager settle for any of the best software engineers in the company, or take the time to seek out exactly what is needed externally? Most organizations that manage projects have high performers whom project managers seek out because of their reputation, but this approach is not always successful. If there are few good people available to complete a project task, there is a lot of pressure on the project manager to negotiate for them even if they do not exactly meet the task or role requirements.

Project managers typically staff their project teams by negotiating with functional managers who are responsible for hiring and developing staff in various key functions. Project manag- ers rarely “own” their temporary teams; they “rent” them from more permanent functions and then help functional managers place them in new projects or other roles at the end of a project. This process places a premium on establishing good relationships between project managers and functional managers who are constantly engaged in managing the workforce to align people with appropriate project jobs.

When interviewing potential team members, the modern approach is to use behavioral inter- viewing. This approach goes beyond credentials and experience, focusing on the candidate’s real-time capacity to address project problems. In this approach, the project managers would

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 345 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.4 Selecting and Managing Project Teams

ask questions such as “Can you tell me how you handled a financial or budget crisis in your last position?” or “Can you describe how you handled a low performer in a project and what you learned from the experience?”

Every team has a personality, or a “mini-culture,” that usually mirrors the enterprise itself. As a project manager it is important to read that personality and work with it to enhance a team’s capacity to reach high performance. Team cultures are created by many factors and can sometimes be gender driven, generation driven, diversity driven, or technology driven. If a project team culture is inconsistent with the prevailing way of doing business in the enter- prise as a whole, a project manager is advised to look for early problems unless the team is aimed at changing the enterprise culture.

Projects succeed or fail based on some important attributes, including skills mismatch, scarce resources, attitudinal and interpersonal issues, lack of communication and information exchange, lack of clear project goals and purpose, lack of accountability, and ineffective hand- offs of task outputs between team members. Of course, other factors largely outside the con- trol of the project team contribute to project problems as well, such as unanticipated changes in customer requirements, lack of top management support, unanticipated competition, new technology problems, and external market and global economic conditions.

Team member accountability is a key aspect of building the project team. This means estab- lishing a sense of responsibility in staff members to be accountable for completing tasks on time and within budget and for meeting customer requirements. But accountability goes fur- ther than just doing the job. Team members must also respect and implement the team’s standards on such issues as open exchange of information, ethical behavior, mutual respect, and reliability.

There is a difference between a group and a team. A group is a collection of people who have a common purpose but behave and function independently. A team, on the other hand, is a col- lection of people with a common purpose and interdependency in behaviors. Project teams depend on each other, and that attribute differentiates them from a group. Project team mem- bers on successful teams know how they contribute to project goals.

Managing Project Teams

Project managers manage teams by conducting the traditional management functions of planning, organizing, directing, staffing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. Each of these functions is handled as a team activity, not an individual activity. This means that the project manager treats the team as a unit, and each function is targeted on team performance and project goals.

Planning The project manager works with the team to plan its operations, as well as planning the proj- ect itself. Planning implies the process of preparing the team for performance by training and developing team members and facilitating meetings and communications. The planning process produces a project management plan that includes project goals, scope, schedule, budget, and quality requirements.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 346 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.4 Selecting and Managing Project Teams

Organizing The project manager organizes the team and provides team processes and procedures to give order to team activity. This includes stating team roles and tasks, reporting relationships, and performance requirements.

Directing The project manager gives direction to the team by making assignments and guiding the team. Direction is maintained by keeping the team focused on project tasks. This is accom- plished by making sure each team member is assigned project tasks and linkages with other team members.

Staffing The project manager selects the team and is responsible for training team members as appro- priate for project work. The selection of team members is a key role for the project manager because it sets the tone for team performance. The project manager maintains the responsibil- ity to replace team members who cannot perform adequately, if necessary to complete a project.

Coordinating The project manager facilitates and coordinates the work of the team, making sure that the team members practice good collaborative and coordinative skills in working together. The project manager promotes coordination and collaboration by meeting with the team as a whole and facilitating discussions of project issues.

Reporting This role involves reporting to the team on project progress and making sure that the team is well informed on team and project performance. This includes reporting on problems within the team and how they are to be resolved. The project manager makes sure the team is informed on reports to top management and stakeholders as well.

Budgeting This role involves acquiring the necessary finances and resources to support the team. Bud- geting involves not only acquiring financial resources but making sure budgets are spent wisely and efficiently.

Developing Project Teams

In addition to the daily management of project teams, there are special programs designed to develop project teams and improve their performance. These are training, professional certi- fications, facilitated working sessions, and teleconferences.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 347 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.4 Selecting and Managing Project Teams

Project teams can be developed and enhanced through the following actions:

1. Training and workshops. Training can be designed to focus on project processes, including scheduling, budgeting, and meetings, and on content, such as technical sessions dealing with the project technology and technical products.

2. Outside certifications. Outside certifications help fill a void in teams that require out- side technical expertise backed up by certifications for specific software applications or networks that are awarded by Microsoft and the Project Management Profes- sional certifications from the Project Management Institute.

3. Facilitated working sessions. Bringing in outside facilitators helps teams address their core project issues, including identifying alternatives, brainstorming solutions, and working out roles and conflicts.

4. Teleconferences. Teleconferences help virtual teams work on common problems and solutions and address special project agendas together.

There are some differences of opinion in the project management field on how effective outside training and development can be in improving performance. Good evaluations on training effec- tiveness are difficult to find simply because it is more challenging to figure out how behavior is changed as a result of a training experience than it is to conduct the training (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). Measures still reflect a focus on inputs, like how training is delivered, rather than outcomes, such as how effective the training is in improving performance.

Creativity Versus Conformance

Project managers would like the project team to follow project management processes and procedures, but sometimes conformance to procedure can lead to disappointing performance because what the project needs is creativity and innovation. There is a basic trade-off in every project between encouraging team members to follow project management processes, sched- ules, task sequencing and linkages, and resource allocations, versus thinking outside the box by creatively anticipating problems and finding new and sometimes untested solutions to project issues.

Creativity is a higher order skill because it requires the conceptual capacity to envision a future state and how to get there through innovation and experimentation. Routine work and productivity benefits from repetition, stability certainty, and predictability, whereas creative work benefits from the generation of new ideas and approaches to project work, sometimes called ideation.

For instance, team members on a construction project would normally be expected to follow a logical sequence, completing the first task, design, then the second task, construction, and so on. The theory in this linear approach is that you must first complete the design, then start construction. One follows the other in logical sequence. This is process-oriented, routine project planning at work. But to speed up a project, you might envision doing both tasks in parallel— that is, doing construction while designing. This innovative approach is called design/build in architectural circles because it envisions designers and construction engineers working con- currently to begin construction of each stage as it is designed.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 348 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Section 11.4 Selecting and Managing Project Teams

Innovation is called for in new product development projects where a premium is placed on new ideas, experimentation, and testing. But sometimes a team member’s new ideas can dis- rupt normal project operations because team members come up with new concepts or products that are not in the scope of work and can lead to budget overruns and dissatisfied customers.

Rewarding Good Performance and Dealing With Bad Performance

Deciding how to reward good team performance seems simple, but how does a project manager reward team performance unless he or she rewards the whole team? And what criteria are used to evaluate and reward team performance? Most project managers understand that the more the team members work successfully together, the more they must be rewarded col- lectively. Nothing can depress a project team more than to accomplish a given stretch goal and then have one team member receive all the credit.

Therefore, the best approach to reward- ing a team is through a project team award to all participants in the team activity. Such an award might be equal

bonus payments to all team members. Sometimes it is difficult to define exactly who deserves the rewards and who does not in a team activity, but it is always wise to enlarge the circle of recognition so that no deserving worker is left out. Individual rewards for work in a team are sometimes in order, but the team should be involved in making the decision. These rewards can be made by giving high performers the kinds of assignments they want as well as providing them with perks such as travel and training opportunities.

Dealing with bad individual performance is more difficult than rewarding good performance. When teams do not work well because of one team member, the project manager may meet individually with the problem performer and issue a warning. If the performance does not improve, the project manager will replace the individual. This is done by transferring the bad performer to another team or into a training or development role in consultation with the human resources staff and replacing the worker with a better candidate as determined by the project manager. The project manager does not typically terminate employees, but rather moves them out of the project team, leaving the termination process to top management and the human resources staff.

Of course, project managers do not punish teams that fail in their projects, but if there are per- formance issues involved they must be addressed. One approach is to write up a team member on bad performance and submit the report to the team member’s functional manager. This way, functional managers can address any project performance issues in their regular performance

Blend Images—Hill Street Studios/Brand X Pictures/Getty Images

Project managers must identify and respond to good and poor task performance by their team members.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 349 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Summary and Resources

appraisals. In sum, since project managers do not normally do performance appraisals, their role is to provide feedback on individual performance to functional managers.

Although it is difficult to address bad performance and equally difficult to be equitable and fair in rewarding good performance, the worst case is to do nothing in response to team per- formance. A team will quickly run out of steam if its performance is simply ignored by the project manager.

Summary and Resources

Chapter Summary • Team members should be selected on the basis of their potential contribution to the

project team and their technical competence to carry out project tasks. • Teams are seen in modern project management as investments in the future of

the organization, and thus they deserve training and development to protect the investment.

• The key project manager skills include working with teams and facilitating team performance through leadership, motivation, and communication.

• The various kinds of project teams include core teams, management teams, and functional management teams.

• Building a team’s capacity to perform involves not only encouraging professional association membership and certification, but also watching individual perfor- mance in the context of the team and being aware of appropriate development opportunities.

• Managing team performance involves all the functions of management during the project life cycle, including planning, organizing, directing, staffing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting.

• Project managers provide rewards and incentives for good performance but also address bad performance promptly with consultation and appropriate perfor- mance reviews.

Posttest 1. The field of human resource management moved from viewing employees simply as

resources for completing tasks to viewing them as __________. a. partners in achieving strategic goals b. company asset investments c. the key responsibility of project managers d. the most important determinant of project value

2. What can employees most often expect in today’s workplace? a. career mobility and individual responsibility b. long-term employer commitment c. support for education and training d. stability within a company or agency

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 350 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Summary and Resources

3. Helping team members understand the connection between their individual tasks and the project’s success is most closely linked to which skill?

a. communication b. motivation c. negotiation d. team building

4. The skill of helping team members improve their confidence and performance through one-on-one exercises is known as __________.

a. training b. performance appraisal c. coaching d. motivation

5. The derogatory term bean counters is sometimes used by frustrated specialists to refer to __________.

a. administrators who care only about minute details of a project and are unable to see the bigger picture

b. customers who maintain tight control and oversight of project budgets and are overly worried about waste or fraud

c. micromanaging project managers who use command tactics to keep projects on schedule and within budget

d. managers who make decisions about a project based on numbers without under- standing its technical demands

6. __________ refers to motivating and empowering a team, whereas __________ usually describes day-to-day involvement and monitoring of a project.

a. Influence; motivation b. Team building; conflict management c. Leadership; management d. Communication; trust

7. The group responsible for managing the project and leading it through the project life cycle is called the __________.

a. core team b. leadership committee c. steering committee d. project management office

8. Which of the following accurately describes a way that teams differ from groups? a. A team is a collection of people who behave and function independently but

share a common purpose. b. A team is made up of members who are interdependent. c. A group is characterized by having a “mini-culture” of its own. d. A group shares a common purpose, and its members depend on each other.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 351 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Summary and Resources

9. Which description BEST characterizes project managers’ relationship to their proj- ect teams?

a. They “rent” the teams from functional departments. b. They have “ownership” over the teams. c. They “lend” the teams to functional departments. d. They are “borrowed” by the teams to lead the project.

10. In rewarding team performance, project managers should err on the side of __________.

a. rewarding only the major milestones so that team members do not become complacent

b. identifying the key contributors so undeserving team members are not acciden- tally rewarded

c. rewarding contributors individually rather than collectively so each feels his or her unique contribution is appreciated

d. enlarging the recognition circle to make sure no one who deserves rewards is left out

Review Questions 1. Why is the selection of project team members important? 2. Why is the core team so important in project planning? 3. What project manager skills are the most important, and when are they most

important? 4. What is the difference between leadership and management? Give some examples. 5. What is the best way to provide feedback on bad performance?

Think About It! Reflective Exercises to Enhance Your Learning 1. Meet with a project team and facilitate a discussion of what makes the team tick and

what hinders its progress. 2. List the criteria you would use in picking team members. Explain why these criteria

are important to you as a project manager. 3. Read an article on leadership and critique it in terms of its practical relevance to

project management.

Additional Resources DiTullio, L. (2010). Project team dynamics: Enhancing performance, improving results. Vienna, VA: Management Concepts.

Thiry, M. (2013). A framework for value management practice. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.

Verma, V. K. (1996). The human aspects of project management: Human resource skills for the project manager (Vol. 2). Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 352 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Summary and Resources

Search the PMI site for “The Competitive Advantage of Effective Talent Management,” which is an article addressing the value of hiring and developing the right people to enhance proj- ect performance: http://www.pmi.org

Search the PMI site for “The Competitive Advantage of Effective Talent Management,” which is an article addressing the value of hiring: http://www.pmi.org

An article on approaches to building and developing project teams: http://www.pmhut .com/5-creative-ideas-for-team-building

Answers and Rejoinders to Chapter Pretest 1. True. The PMBOK guideline on human resource management explains that team

development is essential to a project’s success. Individual and team-based training and opportunities for development help the project team succeed. They are needed no matter how much expertise team members have when selected.

2. True. Project managers who make decisions and face the consequences, even if they miscalculate, are seen as more forward thinking and capable. Team members prefer certainty over ambiguity about key issues.

3. True. The conventional wisdom is usually that all communication is good and only no communication is bad, but the reality is more complex. Too much communication of project issues, or communication without useful content, can be harmful for a team.

4. False. Diversity within a project team has benefits beyond simply adhering to poli- cies and laws. Diversity of gender, race, culture, background, training, and education leads to a mix of valuable perspectives that contribute to the team’s success.

5. False. Most organizations have a few high performers who are frequently sought out by project managers based on their reputations. However, this is not always the best approach to selecting team members. Project managers sometimes feel pressure to attract and select these employees, when they might not actually be the best fit for the specific project task or role.

Answers and Rejoinders to Chapter Posttest 1. b. Studies have shown that investments in people increase a company’s value. Over

the years, the human resource management field shifted from viewing workers as just another resource to considering them investments.

2. a. Today workers rarely spend their whole careers with one organization, and companies tend to provide fewer of the traditional benefits that once signified long-term commitment. Workers are expected to take personal responsibility and to view themselves as independent contractors.

3. d. Project managers with practical team-building skills help team members see that successfully performing their individual tasks contributes to team success. Team success, in turn, is good for the individual team member.

4. c. Coaching involves working one-on-one to help employees understand their own strengths and weaknesses and identify ways to resolve issues. Good coaching skills aid project managers in working with low-performing team members.

5. d. Nontechnical managers assigned to technical and complex projects can be suspected of making decisions based solely on data and numbers. Technical

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 353 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Summary and Resources

specialists and experts do not believe that so-called bean counters understand the dynamics of the project or what team members really do. To counter this, project managers should learn how the deliverable is put together and recognize and respect the technical work being accomplished.

6. c. Leadership refers to using vision and purpose to motivate and inspire the team, stimulating high performance. Management usually describes the ongoing, hands-on work of oversight, direction, feedback, and control.

7. a. The core team, also known as the project management team, is a subset of the project team responsible for leadership and guidance.

8. b. A group is a collection of people who behave and function independently while sharing a common purpose. A team also shares a common purpose, but its mem- bers depend on each other to achieve its goals.

9. a. Employees tend to have more permanent functions within functional teams and are temporarily “rented” by project managers to participate in a project team. Thus, project managers must have good relationships with functional managers, from whom they obtain team members.

10. d. Discerning exactly which team members deserve credit for the team’s good per- formance can be difficult. Because of the bad morale that results when deserving team members go unrewarded, the prudent approach to rewarding a team is to include all members.

Key Terms

coaching The process of working one-on- one to help individuals with particular skills and competencies.

conflict Disagreements between team members on project-related issues or on interpersonal tensions.

conflict management The process of facili- tating a productive working relationship among parties who disagree or have prob- lems working with each other.

core team The small group within a project team that is responsible for preparing the project management plan.

cultural awareness How a project man- ager and team understand what is and is not acceptable in an organization.

functional management team The heads of each of the functional departments in an enterprise who hire and manage staff and assign them to projects.

high-performance team A team that per- forms not only the tasks assigned but rises to higher levels to produce more than expected.

influence The impact that a leader has on team members and their performance.

leadership The process of guiding a team and giving it purpose and direction.

management team The top management team that oversees a project, including the project sponsor.

mentoring Advising or coaching a project team member by providing feedback and personal support.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 354 9/11/14 10:40 AM

Summary and Resources

motivation The will to succeed and work hard, the key reason people are energized to contribute to the project.

network team The participants in the net- work of individuals or institutions that have an interest in the success of the project.

role The function that an employee plays in a team in addition to the technical perfor- mance of task.

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 355 9/11/14 10:40 AM

bar81677_11_c11_327-356.indd 356 9/11/14 10:40 AM