Week #3 - writing
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Chapter 4 Effective Business Writing
However great…natural talent may be, the art of writing cannot be learned all at once.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Read, read, read…Just like a carpenter who works as an apprentice and studies the
master.
William Faulkner
You only learn to be a better writer by actually writing.
Doris Lessing
Getting Started
I N T R O D U C T O R Y E X E R C I S E S
1. Take a moment to write three words that describe your success in writing.
2. Make a list of words that you associate with writing. Compare your list with those of your
classmates.
3. Briefly describe your experience writing and include one link to something you like to read in
your post.
Something we often hear in business is, “Get it in writing.” This advice is meant to
prevent misunderstandings based on what one person thought the other person said.
But does written communication—getting it in writing—always prevent
misunderstandings?
According to a Washington Post news story, a written agreement would have been
helpful to an airline customer named Mike. A victim of an airport mishap, Mike was
given vouchers for $7,500 worth of free travel. However, in accordance with the airline’s
standard policy, the vouchers were due to expire in twelve months. When Mike saw that
he and his wife would not be able to do enough flying to use the entire amount before
the expiration date, he called the airline and asked for an extension. He was told the
airline would extend the deadline, but later discovered they were willing to do so at only
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50 percent of the vouchers’ value. An airline spokesman told the newspaper, “If [Mike]
can produce a letter stating that we would give the full value of the vouchers, he should
produce it.” [1]
Yet, as we will see in this chapter, putting something in writing is not always a foolproof
way to ensure accuracy and understanding. A written communication is only as accurate
as the writer’s knowledge of the subject and audience, and understanding depends on
how well the writer captures the reader’s attention.
This chapter addresses the written word in a business context. We will also briefly
consider the symbols, design, font, timing, and related nonverbal expressions you make
when composing a page or document. Our discussions will focus on effective
communication of your thoughts and ideas through writing that is clear, concise, and
efficient.
[1] Oldenburg, D. (2005, April 12). Old adage holds: Get it in writing. Washington Post, p. C10.
Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A45309-2005Apr11.html
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4.1 Oral versus Written Communication L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E
1. Explain how written communication is similar to oral communication, and how it is different.
The written word often stands in place of the spoken word. People often say “it was good to hear
from you” when they receive an e-mail or a letter, when in fact they didn’t hear the message,
they read it. Still, if they know you well, they may mentally “hear” your voice in your written words.
Writing a message to friends or colleagues can be as natural as talking to them. Yet when we are
asked to write something, we often feel anxious and view writing as a more effortful, exacting process
than talking would be.
Oral and written forms of communication are similar in many ways. They both rely on the basic
communication process, which consists of eight essential elements: source, receiver, message,
channel, receiver, feedback, environment, context, and interference. Table 4.1 "Eight Essential
Elements of Communication" summarizes these elements and provides examples of how each
element might be applied in oral and written communication.
Table 4.1 Eight Essential Elements of Communication Element of
Communication Definition Oral Application Written Application
1. Source A source creates and communicates a message.
Jay makes a telephone call to Heather.
Jay writes an e-mail to Heather.
2. Receiver A receiver receives the message from the source. Heather listens to Jay. Heather reads Jay’s e-mail.
3. Message
The message is the stimulus or meaning produced by the source for the receiver.
Jay asks Heather to participate in a conference call at 3:15.
Jay’s e-mail asks Heather to participate in a conference call at 3:15.
4. Channel
A channel is the way a message travels between source and receiver.
The channel is the telephone. The channel is e-mail.
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Element of Communication Definition Oral Application Written Application
5. Feedback
Feedback is the message the receiver sends in response to the source. Heather says yes.
Heather replies with an e- mail saying yes.
6. Environment
The environment is the physical atmosphere where the communication occurs.
Heather is traveling by train on a business trip when she receives Jay’s phone call.
Heather is at her desk when she receives Jay’s e-mail.
7. Context
The context involves the psychological expectations of the source and receiver.
Heather expects Jay to send an e-mail with the call-in information for the call. Jay expects to do so, and does.
Heather expects Jay to dial and connect the call. Jay expects Heather to check her e-mail for the call-in information so that she can join the call.
8. Interference
Also known as noise, interference is anything that blocks or distorts the communication process.
Heather calls in at 3:15, but she has missed the call because she forgot that she is in a different time zone from Jay.
Heather waits for a phone call from Jay at 3:15, but he doesn’t call.
As you can see from the applications in this example, at least two different kinds of interference have
the potential to ruin a conference call, and the interference can exist regardless of whether the
communication to plan the call is oral or written. Try switching the “Context” and “Interference”
examples from Oral to Written, and you will see that mismatched expectations and time zone
confusion can happen by phone or by e-mail. While this example has an unfavorable outcome, it
points out a way in which oral and written communication processes are similar.
Another way in which oral and written forms of communication are similar is that they can be
divided into verbal and nonverbal categories. Verbal communication involves the words you say, and
nonverbal communication involves how you say them—your tone of voice, your facial expression,
body language, and so forth. Written communication also involves verbal and nonverbal dimensions.
The words you choose are the verbal dimension. How you portray or display them is the nonverbal
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dimension, which can include the medium (e-mail or a printed document), the typeface or font, or
the appearance of your signature on a letter. In this sense, oral and written communication are
similar in their approach even as they are quite different in their application.
The written word allows for a dynamic communication process between source and receiver, but is
often asynchronous, meaning that it occurs at different times. When we communicate face-to-face,
we get immediate feedback, but our written words stand in place of that interpersonal interaction
and we lack that immediate response. Since we are often not physically present when someone reads
what we have written, it is important that we anticipate the reader’s needs, interpretation, and likely
response to our written messages.
Suppose you are asked to write a message telling clients about a new product or service your
company is about to offer. If you were speaking to one of them in a relaxed setting over coffee, what
would you say? What words would you choose to describe the product or service, and how it may
fulfill the client’s needs? As the business communicator, you must focus on the words you use and
how you use them. Short, simple sentences, in themselves composed of words, also communicate a
business style. In your previous English classes you may have learned to write eloquently, but in a
business context, your goal is clear, direct communication. One strategy to achieve this goal is to
write with the same words and phrases you use when you talk. However, since written
communication lacks the immediate feedback that is present in an oral conversation, you need to
choose words and phrases even more carefully to promote accuracy, clarity, and understanding.
K E Y T A K E A W A Y
Written communication involves the same eight basic elements as oral communication,
but it is often asynchronous. E X E R C I S E S
1. Review the oral and written applications in Table 4.1 "Eight Essential Elements of
Communication" and construct a different scenario for each. What could Jay and Heather do
differently to make the conference call a success?
2. Visit a business Web site that has an “About Us” page. Read the “About Us” message and write a
summary in your own words of what it tells you about the company. Compare your results with
those of your classmates.
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3. You are your own company. What words describe you? Design a logo, create a name, and
present your descriptive words in a way that gets attention. Share and compare with classmates.
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4.2 How Is Writing Learned? L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E
1. Explain how reading, writing, and critical thinking contribute to becoming a good writer.
You may think that some people are simply born better writers than others, but in fact
writing is a reflection of experience and effort. If you think about your successes as a
writer, you may come up with a couple of favorite books, authors, or teachers that
inspired you to express yourself. You may also recall a sense of frustration with your
previous writing experiences. It is normal and natural to experience a sense of
frustration at the perceivedinability to express oneself. The emphasis here is on your
perception of yourself as a writer as one aspect of how you communicate. Most people
use oral communication for much of their self-expression, from daily interactions to
formal business meetings. You have a lifetime of experience in that arena that you can
leverage to your benefit in your writing. Reading out loud what you have written is a
positive technique we’ll address later in more depth.
Martin Luther King Jr.’s statement, “Violence is the language of the unheard”
emphasizes the importance of finding one’s voice, of being able to express one’s ideas.
Violence comes in many forms, but is often associated with frustration born of the lack
of opportunity to communicate. You may read King’s words and think of the Civil Rights
movement of the 1960s, or perhaps of the violence of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, or of
wars happening in the world today. Public demonstrations and fighting are expressions
of voice, from individual to collective. Finding your voice, and learning to listen to
others, is part of learning to communicate.
You are your own best ally when it comes to your writing. Keeping a positive frame of
mind about your journey as a writer is not a cliché or simple, hollow advice. Your
attitude toward writing can and does influence your written products. Even if writing
has been a challenge for you, the fact that you are reading this sentence means you
perceive the importance of this essential skill. This text and our discussions will help you
improve your writing, and your positive attitude is part of your success strategy.
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There is no underestimating the power of effort when combined with inspiration and
motivation. The catch then is to get inspired and motivated. That’s not all it takes, but it
is a great place to start. You were not born with a key pad in front of you, but when you
want to share something with friends and text them, the words (or abbreviations) come
almost naturally. So you recognize you have the skills necessary to begin the process of
improving and harnessing your writing abilities for business success. It will take time
and effort, and the proverbial journey starts with a single step, but don’t lose sight of the
fact that your skillful ability to craft words will make a significant difference in your
career.
Reading Reading is one step many writers point to as an integral step in learning to write
effectively. You may like Harry Potter books or be a Twilight fan, but if you want to write
effectively in business, you need to read business-related documents. These can include
letters, reports, business proposals, and business plans. You may find these where you
work or in your school’s writing center, business department, or library; there are also
many Web sites that provide sample business documents of all kinds. Your reading
should also include publications in the industry where you work or plan to work, such
as Aviation Week,InfoWorld, Journal of Hospitality, International Real Estate Digest,
or Women’s Wear Daily, to name just a few. You can also gain an advantage by reading
publications in fields other than your chosen one; often reading outside your niche can
enhance your versatility and help you learn how other people express similar concepts.
Finally, don’t neglect general media like the business section of your local newspaper,
and national publications like theWall Street Journal, Fast Company, and the Harvard
Business Review. Reading is one of the most useful lifelong habits you can practice to
boost your business communication skills.
In the “real world” when you are under a deadline and production is paramount, you’ll
be rushed and may lack the time to do adequate background reading for a particular
assignment. For now, take advantage of your business communication course by
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exploring common business documents you may be called on to write, contribute to, or
play a role in drafting. Some documents have a degree of formula to them, and your
familiarity with them will reduce your preparation and production time while increasing
your effectiveness. As you read similar documents, take notes on what you observe. As
you read several sales letters, you may observe several patterns that can serve you well
later on when it’s your turn. These patterns are often called conventions, or
conventional language patterns for a specific genre.
Writing Never lose sight of one key measure of the effectiveness of your writing: the degree to
which it fulfills readers’ expectations. If you are in a law office, you know the purpose of
a court brief is to convince the judge that certain points of law apply to the given case. If
you are at a newspaper, you know that an editorial opinion article is supposed to
convince readers of the merits of a certain viewpoint, whereas a news article is supposed
to report facts without bias. If you are writing ad copy, the goal is to motivate consumers
to make a purchase decision. In each case, you are writing to a specific purpose, and a
great place to start when considering what to write is to answer the following question:
what are the readers’ expectations?
When you are a junior member of the team, you may be given clerical tasks like filling in
forms, populating a database, or coordinating appointments. Or you may be assigned to
do research that involves reading, interviewing, and note taking. Don’t underestimate
these facets of the writing process; instead, embrace the fact that writing for business
often involves tasks that a novelist might not even recognize as “writing.” Your
contribution is quite important and in itself is an on-the-job learning opportunity that
shouldn’t be taken for granted.
When given a writing assignment, it is important to make sure you understand what you
are being asked to do. You may read the directions and try to put them in your own
words to make sense of the assignment. Be careful, however, not to lose sight of what
the directions say versus what you think they say. Just as an audience’s expectations
should be part of your consideration of how, what, and why to write, the instructions
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given by your instructor, or in a work situation by your supervisor, establish
expectations. Just as you might ask a mentor more about a business writing assignment
at work, you need to use the resources available to you to maximize your learning
opportunity. Ask the professor to clarify any points you find confusing, or perceive more
than one way to interpret, in order to better meet the expectations.
Before you write an opening paragraph, or even the first sentence, it is important to
consider the overall goal of the assignment. The word assignment can apply equally to a
written product for class or for your employer. You might make a list of the main points
and see how those points may become the topic sentences in a series of paragraphs. You
may also give considerable thought to whether your word choice, your tone, your
language, and what you want to say is in line with your understanding of your audience.
We briefly introduced the writing process previously, and will visit it in depth later in
our discussion, but for now writing should about exploring your options. Authors rarely
have a finished product in mind when they start, but once you know what your goal is
and how to reach it, you writing process will become easier and more effective.
Constructive Criticism and Targeted Practice Mentors can also be important in your growth as a writer. Your instructor can serve as a
mentor, offering constructive criticism, insights on what he or she has written, and life
lessons about writing for a purpose. Never underestimate the mentors that surround
you in the workplace, even if you are currently working in a position unrelated to your
desired career. They can read your rough draft and spot errors, as well as provide useful
insights. Friends and family can also be helpful mentors—if your document’s meaning is
clear to someone not working in your business, it will likely also be clear to your
audience.
The key is to be open to criticism, keeping in mind that no one ever improved by
repeating bad habits over and over. Only when you know what your errors are—errors of
grammar or sentence structure, logic, format, and so on—can you correct your
document and do a better job next time. Writing can be a solitary activity, but more
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often in business settings it is a collective, group, or team effort. Keep your eyes and ears
open for opportunities to seek outside assistance before you finalize your document.
Learning to be a successful business writer comes with practice. Targeted practice,
which involves identifying your weak areas and specifically working to improve them, is
especially valuable. In addition to reading, make it a habit to write, even if it is not a
specific assignment. The more you practice writing the kinds of materials that are used
in your line of work, the more writing will come naturally and become an easier task—
even on occasions when you need to work under pressure.
Critical Thinking Critical thinking means becoming aware of your thinking process. It’s a human trait that
allows us to step outside what we read or write and ask ourselves, “Does this really make
sense?” “Are there other, perhaps better, ways to explain this idea?” Sometimes our
thinking is very abstract and becomes clear only through the process of getting thoughts
down in words. As a character in E. M. Forster’s Aspects of the Novel said, “How can I
tell what I think till I see what I say?” [1] Did you really write what you meant to, and will
it be easily understood by the reader? Successful writing forms a relationship with the
audience, reaching the reader on a deep level that can be dynamic and motivating. In
contrast, when writing fails to meet the audience’s expectations, you already know the
consequences: they’ll move on.
Learning to write effectively involves reading, writing, critical thinking, and hard work.
You may have seen The Wizard of Oz and recall the scene when Dorothy discovers what
is behind the curtain. Up until that moment, she believed the Wizard’s powers were
needed to change her situation, but now she discovers that the power is her own. Like
Dorothy, you can discover that the power to write successfully rests in your hands.
Excellent business writing can be inspiring, and it is important to not lose that sense of
inspiration as we deconstruct the process of writing to its elemental components.
You may be amazed by the performance of Tony Hawk on a skateboard ramp, Mia
Hamm on the soccer field, or Michael Phelps in the water. Those who demonstrate
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excellence often make it look easy, but nothing could be further from the truth. Effort,
targeted practice, and persistence will win the day every time. When it comes to writing,
you need to learn to recognize clear and concise writing while looking behind the curtain
at how it is created. This is not to say we are going to lose the magic associated with the
best writers in the field. Instead, we’ll appreciate what we are reading as we examine
how it was written and how the writer achieved success. K E Y T A K E A W A Y
Success in writing comes from good habits: reading, writing (especially targeted
practice), and critical thinking. E X E R C I S E S
1. Interview one person whose job involves writing. This can include writing e-mails, reports,
proposals, invoices, or any other form of business document. Where did this person learn to
write? What would they include as essential steps to learning to write for success in business?
Share your results with a classmate.
2. For five consecutive days, read the business section of your local newspaper or another daily
paper. Write a one-page summary of the news that makes the most impression on you. Review
your summaries and compare them with those of your classmates.
3. Practice filling out an online form that requires writing sentences, such as a job application for a
company that receives applications online. How does this kind of writing compare with the
writing you have done for other courses in the past? Discuss your thoughts with your classmates.
[1] Forster, E. M. (1976). Aspects of the novel (p. 99). Oliver Stallybrass (Ed.). Harmondsworth,
UK: Penguin.
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4.3 Good Writing L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
1. Identify six basic qualities that characterize good business writing.
2. Identify and explain the rhetorical elements and cognate strategies that contribute to good
writing.
One common concern is to simply address the question, what is good writing? As we
progress through our study of written business communication we’ll try to answer it.
But recognize that while the question may be simple, the answer is complex. Edward P.
Bailey [1]offers several key points to remember.
Good business writing
• follows the rules,
• is easy to read, and
• attracts the reader.
Let’s examine these qualities in more depth.
Bailey’s first point is one that generates a fair amount of debate. What are the rules? Do
“the rules” depend on audience expectations or industry standards, what your English
teacher taught you, or are they reflected in the amazing writing of authors you might
point to as positive examples? The answer is “all of the above,” with a point of
clarification. You may find it necessary to balance audience expectations with industry
standards for a document, and may need to find a balance or compromise.
Bailey [2] points to common sense as one basic criterion of good writing, but common
sense is a product of experience. When searching for balance, reader understanding is
the deciding factor. The correct use of a semicolon may not be what is needed to make a
sentence work. Your reading audience should carry extra attention in everything you
write because, without them, you won’t have many more writing assignments.
When we say that good writing follows the rules, we don’t mean that a writer cannot be
creative. Just as an art student needs to know how to draw a scene in correct perspective
before he can “break the rules” by “bending” perspective, so a writer needs to know the
rules of language. Being well versed in how to use words correctly, form sentences with
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proper grammar, and build logical paragraphs are skills the writer can use no matter
what the assignment. Even though some business settings may call for conservative
writing, there are other areas where creativity is not only allowed but mandated.
Imagine working for an advertising agency or a software development firm; in such
situations success comes from expressing new, untried ideas. By following the rules of
language and correct writing, a writer can express those creative ideas in a form that
comes through clearly and promotes understanding.
Similarly, writing that is easy to read is not the same as “dumbed down” or simplistic
writing. What is easy to read? For a young audience, you may need to use
straightforward, simple terms, but to ignore their use of the language is to create an
artificial and unnecessary barrier. An example referring to Miley Cyrus may work with
one reading audience and fall flat with another. Profession-specific terms can serve a
valuable purpose as we write about precise concepts. Not everyone will understand all
the terms in a profession, but if your audience is largely literate in the terms of the field,
using industry terms will help you establish a relationship with your readers.
The truly excellent writer is one who can explain complex ideas in a way that the reader
can understand. Sometimes ease of reading can come from the writer’s choice of a
brilliant illustrative example to get a point across. In other situations, it can be the
writer’s incorporation of definitions into the text so that the meaning of unfamiliar
words is clear. It may also be a matter of choosing dynamic, specific verbs that make it
clear what is happening and who is carrying out the action.
Bailey’s third point concerns the interest of the reader. Will they want to read it? This
question should guide much of what you write. We increasingly gain information from
our environment through visual, auditory, and multimedia channels, from YouTube to
streaming audio, and to watching the news online. Some argue that this has led to a
decreased attention span for reading, meaning that writers need to appeal to readers
with short, punchy sentences and catchy phrases. However, there are still plenty of
people who love to immerse themselves in reading an interesting article, proposal, or
marketing piece.
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Perhaps the most universally useful strategy in capturing your reader’s attention is to
state how your writing can meet the reader’s needs. If your document provides
information to answer a question, solve a problem, or explain how to increase profits or
cut costs, you may want to state this in the beginning. By opening with a “what’s in it for
me” strategy, you give your audience a reason to be interested in what you’ve written.
More Qualities of Good Writing To the above list from Bailey, let’s add some additional qualities that define good
writing. Good writing
• meets the reader’s expectations,
• is clear and concise,
• is efficient and effective.
To meet the reader’s expectations, the writer needs to understand who the intended
reader is. In some business situations, you are writing just to one person: your boss, a
coworker in another department, or an individual customer or vendor. If you know the
person well, it may be as easy for you to write to him or her as it is to write a note to your
parent or roommate. If you don’t know the person, you can at least make some
reasonable assumptions about his or her expectations, based on the position he or she
holds and its relation to your job.
In other situations, you may be writing a document to be read by a group or team, an
entire department, or even a large number of total strangers. How can you anticipate
their expectations and tailor your writing accordingly? Naturally you want to learn as
much as you can about your likely audience. How much you can learn and what kinds of
information will vary with the situation. If you are writing Web site content, for
example, you may never meet the people who will visit the site, but you can predict why
they would be drawn to the site and what they would expect to read there. Beyond
learning about your audience, your clear understanding of the writing assignment and
its purpose will help you to meet reader expectations.
Our addition of the fifth point concerning clear and concise writing reflects the
increasing tendency in business writing to eliminate error. Errors can include those
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associated with production, from writing to editing, and reader response. Your twin
goals of clear and concise writing point to a central goal across communication: fidelity.
This concept involves our goal of accurately communicating all the intended
information with a minimum of signal or message breakdown or misinterpretation.
Designing your documents, including writing and presentation, to reduce message
breakdown is an important part of effective business communication.
This leads our discussion to efficiency. There are only twenty-four hours in a day and we
are increasingly asked to do more with less, with shorter deadlines almost guaranteed.
As a writer, how do you meet ever-increasing expectations? Each writing assignment
requires a clear understanding of the goals and desired results, and when either of these
two aspects is unclear, the efficiency of your writing can be compromised. Rewrites
require time that you may not have, but will have to make if the assignment was not
done correctly the first time.
As we have discussed previously, making a habit of reading similar documents prior to
beginning your process of writing can help establish a mental template of your desired
product. If you can see in your mind’s eye what you want to write, and have the
perspective of similar documents combined with audience’s needs, you can write more
efficiently. Your written documents are products and will be required on a schedule that
impacts your coworkers and business. Your ability to produce effective documents
efficiently is a skill set that will contribute to your success.
Our sixth point reinforces this idea with an emphasis on effectiveness. What is effective
writing? It is writing that succeeds in accomplishing its purpose. Understanding the
purpose, goals, and desired results of your writing assignment will help you achieve this
success. Your employer may want an introductory sales letter to result in an increase in
sales leads, or potential contacts for follow-up leading to sales. Your audience may not
see the document from that perspective, but will instead read with the mindset of, “How
does this help me solve X problem?” If you meet both goals, your writing is approaching
effectiveness. Here, effectiveness is qualified with the word “approaching” to point out
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that writing is both a process and a product, and your writing will continually require
effort and attention to revision and improvement.
Rhetorical Elements and Cognate Strategies Another approach to defining good writing is to look at how it fulfills the goals of two
well-known systems in communication. One of these systems comprises the three
classical elements of rhetoric, or the art of presenting an argument. These elements
are logos(logic), ethos (ethics and credibility), and pathos (emotional appeal), first
proposed by the ancient Greek teacher Aristotle. Although rhetoric is often applied to
oral communication, especially public speaking, it is also fundamental to good writing.
A second set of goals involves what are called cognate strategies, or ways of promoting
understanding, [3] developed in recent decades by Charles Kostelnick and David Rogers.
Like rhetorical elements, cognate strategies can be applied to public speaking, but they
are also useful in developing good writing. Table 4.2 "Rhetorical Elements and Cognate
Strategies"describes these goals, their purposes, and examples of how they may be
carried out in business writing.
Table 4.2 Rhetorical Elements and Cognate Strategies Aristotle’s Rhetorical Elements
Cognate Strategies Focus Example in Business Writing
Logos
Clarity Clear understanding
An announcement will be made to the company later in the week, but I wanted to tell you personally that as of the first of next month, I will be leaving my position to accept a three-year assignment in our Singapore office. As soon as further details about the management of your account are available, I will share them with you.
Conciseness Key points
In tomorrow’s conference call Sean wants to introduce the new team members, outline the schedule and budget for the project, and clarify each person’s responsibilities in meeting our goals.
Arrangement Order, hierarchy,
Our department has matrix structure. We have three product development groups, one for each category of
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Aristotle’s Rhetorical Elements
Cognate Strategies Focus Example in Business Writing
placement product. We also have a manufacturing group, a finance group, and a sales group; different group members are assigned to each of the three product categories. Within the matrix, our structure is flat, meaning that we have no group leaders. Everyone reports to Beth, the department manager.
Ethos
Credibility Character, trust
Having known and worked with Jesse for more than five years, I can highly recommend him to take my place as your advisor. In addition to having superb qualifications, Jesse is known for his dedication, honesty, and caring attitude. He will always go the extra mile for his clients.
Expectation
Norms and anticipated outcomes
As is typical in our industry, we ship all merchandise FOB our warehouse. Prices are exclusive of any federal, state, or local taxes. Payment terms are net 30 days from date of invoice.
Reference
Sources and frames of reference
According to an article in Business Week dated October 15, 2009, Doosan is one of the largest business conglomerates in South Korea.
Pathos
Tone Expression
I really don’t have words to express how grateful I am for all the support you’ve extended to me and my family in this hour of need. You guys are the best.
Emphasis Relevance
It was unconscionable for a member of our organization to shout an interruption while the president was speaking. What needs to happen now— and let me be clear about this—is an immediate apology.
Engagement Relationship Faithful soldiers pledge never to leave a fallen comrade on the battlefield.
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K E Y T A K E A W A Y
Good writing is characterized by correctness, ease of reading, and attractiveness; it also
meets reader expectations and is clear, concise, efficient, and effective. Rhetorical
elements (logos, ethos, and pathos) and cognate strategies (clarity, conciseness,
arrangement, credibility, expectation, reference, tone, emphasis, and engagement) are
goals that are achieved in good business writing. E X E R C I S E S
1. Choose a piece of business writing that attracts your interest. What made you want to read it?
Share your thoughts with your classmates.
2. Choose a piece of business writing and evaluate it according to the qualities of good writing
presented in this section. Do you think the writing qualifies as “good”? Why or why not? Discuss
your opinion with your classmates.
3. Identify the ethos, pathos, and logos in a document. Share and compare with classmates.
[1] Bailey, E. (2008). Writing and speaking. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
[2] Bailey, E. (2008). Writing and speaking. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
[3] Kostelnick, C., & Roberts, D. (1998). Designing visual language: Strategies for professional
communicators (p. 14). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
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4.4 Style in Written Communication L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
1. Describe and identify three styles of writing.
2. Demonstrate the appropriate use of colloquial, casual, and formal writing in at least one
document of each style.
One way to examine written communication is from a structural perspective. Words are
a series of symbols that communicate meaning, strung together in specific patterns that
are combined to communicate complex and compound meanings. Nouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and articles are the building blocks you will use when
composing written documents. Misspellings of individual words or grammatical errors
involving misplacement or incorrect word choices in a sentence, can create confusion,
lose meaning, and have a negative impact on the reception of your document. Errors
themselves are not inherently bad, but failure to recognize and fix them will reflect on
you, your company, and limit your success. Self-correction is part of the writing process.
Another way to examine written communication is from a goals perspective, where
specific documents address stated (or unstated) goals and have rules, customs, and
formats that are anticipated and expected. Violations of these rules, customs, or
formats—whether intentional or unintentional—can also have a negative impact on the
way your document is received.
Colloquial, casual, and formal writing are three common styles that carry their own
particular sets of expectations. Which style you use will depend on your audience, and
often whether your communication is going to be read only by those in your company
(internal communications) or by those outside the organization, such as vendors,
customers or clients (external communications). As a general rule, external
communications tend to be more formal, just as corporate letterhead and business
cards—designed for presentation to the “outside world”—are more formal than the e-
mail and text messages that are used for everyday writing within the organization.
Style also depends on the purpose of the document and its audience. If your writing
assignment is for Web page content, clear and concise use of the written word is
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essential. If your writing assignment is a feature interest article for an online magazine,
you may have the luxury of additional space and word count combined with graphics,
pictures, embedded video or audio clips, and links to related topics. If your writing
assignment involves an introductory letter represented on a printed page delivered in an
envelope to a potential customer, you won’t have the interactivity to enhance your
writing, placing an additional burden on your writing and how you represent it.
Colloquial Colloquial language is an informal, conversational style of writing. It differs from
standard business English in that it often makes use of colorful expressions, slang, and
regional phrases. As a result, it can be difficult to understand for an English learner or a
person from a different region of the country. Sometimes colloquialism takes the form of
a word difference; for example, the difference between a “Coke,” a “tonic,” a “pop, and a
“soda pop” primarily depends on where you live. It can also take the form of a saying, as
Roy Wilder Jr. discusses in his book You All Spoken Here: Southern Talk at Its Down-
Home Best. [1] Colloquial sayings like “He could mess up a rainstorm” or “He couldn’t hit
the ground if he fell” communicate the person is inept in a colorful, but not universal
way. In the Pacific Northwest someone might “mosey,” or walk slowly, over to the “café,”
or bakery, to pick up a “maple bar”—a confection known as a “Long John doughnut” to
people in other parts of the United States.
Colloquial language can be reflected in texting:
“ok fwiw i did my part n put it in where you asked but my ? is if the group does
not participate do i still get credit for my part of what i did n also how much do
we all have to do i mean i put in my opinion of the items in order do i also have to
reply to the other team members or what? Thxs”
We may be able to grasp the meaning of the message, and understand some of the
abbreviations and codes, but when it comes to business, this style of colloquial text
writing is generally suitable only for one-on-one internal communications between
coworkers who know each other well (and those who do not judge each other on spelling
or grammar). For external communications, and even for group communications within
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the organization, it is not normally suitable, as some of the codes are not standard, and
may even be unfamiliar to the larger audience.
Colloquial writing may be permissible, and even preferable, in some business contexts.
For example, a marketing letter describing a folksy product such as a wood stove or an
old-fashioned popcorn popper might use a colloquial style to create a feeling of relaxing
at home with loved ones. Still, it is important to consider how colloquial language will
appear to the audience. Will the meaning of your chosen words be clear to a reader who
is from a different part of the country? Will a folksy tone sound like you are “talking
down” to your audience, assuming that they are not intelligent or educated enough to
appreciate standard English? A final point to remember is that colloquial style is not an
excuse for using expressions that are sexist, racist, profane, or otherwise offensive.
Casual Casual language involves everyday words and expressions in a familiar group context,
such as conversations with family or close friends. The emphasis is on the
communication interaction itself, and less about the hierarchy, power, control, or social
rank of the individuals communicating. When you are at home, at times you probably
dress in casual clothing that you wouldn’t wear in public—pajamas or underwear, for
example. Casual communication is the written equivalent of this kind of casual attire.
Have you ever had a family member say something to you that a stranger or coworker
would never say? Or have you said something to a family member that you would never
say in front of your boss? In both cases, casual language is being used. When you write
for business, a casual style is usually out of place. Instead, a respectful, professional tone
represents you well in your absence.
Formal In business writing, the appropriate style will have a degree of
formality.Formal language is communication that focuses on professional expression
with attention to roles, protocol, and appearance. It is characterized by its vocabulary
and syntax, or the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence. That is, writers
using a formal style tend to use a more sophisticated vocabulary—a greater variety of
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words, and more words with multiple syllables—not for the purpose of throwing big
words around, but to enhance the formal mood of the document. They also tend to use
more complex syntax, resulting in sentences that are longer and contain more
subordinate clauses.
The appropriate style for a particular business document may be very formal, or less so.
If your supervisor writes you an e-mail and you reply, the exchange may be informal in
that it is fluid and relaxed, without much forethought or fanfare, but it will still reflect
the formality of the business environment. Chances are you will be careful to use an
informative subject line, a salutation (“Hi [supervisor’s name]” is typical in e-mails), a
word of thanks for whatever information or suggestion she provided you, and an
indication that you stand ready to help further if need be. You will probably also check
your grammar and spelling before you click “send.”
A formal document such as a proposal or an annual report will involve a great deal of
planning and preparation, and its style may not be fluid or relaxed. Instead, it may use
distinct language to emphasize the prestige and professionalism of your company. Let’s
say you are going to write a marketing letter that will be printed on company letterhead
and mailed to a hundred sales prospects. Naturally you want to represent your company
in a positive light. In a letter of this nature you might write a sentence like “The Widget
300 is our premium offering in the line; we have designed it for ease of movement and
efficiency of use, with your success foremost in our mind.” But in an e-mail or a tweet,
you might use an informal sentence instead, reading “W300—good stapler.”
Writing for business often involves choosing the appropriate level of formality for the
company and industry, the particular document and situation, and the audience. K E Y T A K E A W A Y
The best style for a document may be colloquial, casual, informal, or formal, depending
on the audience and the situation. E X E R C I S E S
1. Refer back to the e-mail or text message example in this section. Would you send that message
to your professor? Why or why not? What normative expectations concerning professor-student
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communication are there and where did you learn them? Discuss your thoughts with your
classmates.
2. Select a business document and describe its style. Is it formal, informal, or colloquial? Can you
rewrite it in a different style? Share your results with a classmate.
3. List three words or phrases that you would say to your friends. List three words or phrases that
communicate similar meanings that you would say to an authority figure. Share and compare
with classmates.
4. When is it appropriate to write in a casual tone? In a formal tone? Write a one- to two-page
essay on this topic and discuss it with a classmate.
5. How does the intended audience influence the choice of words and use of language in a
document? Think of a specific topic and two specific kinds of audiences. Then write a short
example (250–500 words) of how this topic might be presented to each of the two audiences.
[1] Wilde, J., Jr. (2003). You all spoken here: Southern talk at its down-home best. Athens:
University of Georgia Press.
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4.5 Principles of Written Communication L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
1. Understand the rules that govern written language.
2. Understand the legal implications of business writing.
You may not recall when or where you learned all about nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs, prepositions, articles, and phrases, but if you understand this sentence we’ll
take for granted that you have a firm grasp of the basics. But even professional writers
and editors, who have spent a lifetime navigating the ins and outs of crafting correct
sentences, have to use reference books to look up answers to questions of grammar and
usage that arise in the course of their work. Let’s examine how the simple collection of
symbols called a word can be such a puzzle.
Words Are Inherently Abstract There is no universally accepted definition for love, there are many ways to describe
desire, and there are countless ways to draw patience. Each of these terms is a noun, but
it’s anabstract noun, referring to an intangible concept.
While there are many ways to define a chair, describe a table, or draw a window, they
each have a few common characteristics. A chair may be made from wood, crafted in a
Mission style, or made from plastic resin in one solid piece in nondescript style, but each
has four legs and serves a common function. A table and a window also have common
characteristics that in themselves form a basis for understanding between source and
receiver. The words “chair,” “table,” and “window” are concrete terms, as they describe
something we can see and touch.
Concrete terms are often easier to agree on, understand, or at least define the common
characteristics of. Abstract terms can easily become even more abstract with extended
discussions, and the conversational partners may never agree on a common definition
or even a range of understanding.
In business communication, where the goal is to be clear and concise, limiting the range
of misinterpretation, which type of word do you think is preferred? Concrete terms serve
to clarify your writing and more accurately communicate your intended meaning to the
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receiver. While all words are abstractions, some are more so than others. To promote
effective communication, choose words that can be easily referenced and understood.
Words Are Governed by Rules Perhaps you like to think of yourself as a free spirit, but did you know that all your
communication is governed by rules? You weren’t born knowing how to talk, but
learned to form words and sentences as you developed from infancy. As you learned
language, you learned rules. You learned not only what a word means in a given context,
and how to pronounce it; you also learned the social protocol of when to use it and when
not to. When you write, your words represent you in your absence. The context may
change from reader to reader, and your goal as an effective business communicator is to
get your message across (and some feedback) regardless of the situation.
The better you know your audience and context, the better you can anticipate and
incorporate the rules of how, what, and when to use specific words and terms. And here
lies a paradox. You may think that, ideally, the best writing is writing that is universally
appealing and understood. Yet the more you design a specific message to a specific
audience or context, the less universal the message becomes. Actually, this is neither a
good or bad thing in itself. In fact, if you didn’t target your messages, they wouldn’t be
nearly as effective. By understanding this relationship of a universal or specific appeal to
an audience or context, you can look beyond vocabulary and syntax and focus on the
reader. When considering a communication assignment like a sales letter, knowing the
intended audience gives you insight to the explicit and implicit rules.
All words are governed by rules, and the rules are vastly different from one language and
culture to another. A famous example is the decision by Chevrolet to give the name
“Nova” to one of its cars. In English, nova is recognized as coming from Latin meaning
“new”; for those who have studied astronomy, it also refers to a type of star. When the
Chevy Nova was introduced in Latin America, however, it was immediately ridiculed as
the “car that doesn’t go.” Why? Because “no va” literally means “doesn’t go” in Spanish.
By investigating sample names in a range of markets, you can quickly learn the rules
surrounding words and their multiple meaning, much as you learned about subjects and
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objects, verbs and nouns, adjectives and adverbs when you were learning language.
Long before you knew formal grammar terms, you observed how others communicate
and learned by trial and error. In business, error equals inefficiency, loss of resources,
and is to be avoided. For Chevrolet, a little market research in Latin America would have
gone a long way.
Words Shape Our Reality Aristotle is famous for many things, including his questioning of whether the table you
can see, feel, or use is real. [1] This may strike you as strange, but imagine that we are
looking at a collection of antique hand tools. What are they? They are made of metal and
wood, but what are they used for? The words we use help us to make sense of our reality,
and we often use what we know to figure out what we don’t know. Perhaps we have a
hard time describing the color of the tool, or the table, as we walk around it. The light
itself may influence our perception of its color. We may lack the vocabulary to accurately
describe to the color, and instead say it is “like a” color, but not directly describe the
color itself. [2] The color, or use of the tool, or style of the table are all independent of the
person perceiving them, but also a reflection of the person perceiving the object.
clear and concise communication involves anticipation of this inability to label a color or
describe the function of an antique tool by constructing meaning. Anticipating the
language that the reader may reasonably be expected to know, as well as unfamiliar
terms, enables the writer to communicate in a way that describes with common
reference points while illustrating the new, interesting, or unusual. Promoting
understanding and limiting misinterpretations are key goals of the effective business
communicator.
Your letter introducing a new product or service relies, to an extent, on your
preconceived notions of the intended audience and their preconceived notions of your
organization and its products or services. By referencing common ground, you form a
connection between the known and the unknown, the familiar and the new. People are
more likely to be open to a new product or service if they can reasonably relate it to one
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they are familiar with, or with which they have had good experience in the past. Your
initial measure of success is effective communication, and your long term success may
be measured in the sale or new contract for services.
Words and Your Legal Responsibility Your writing in a business context means that you represent yourself and your company.
What you write and how you write it can be part of your company’s success, but can also
expose it to unintended consequences and legal responsibility. When you write, keep in
mind that your words will keep on existing long after you have moved on to other
projects. They can become an issue if they exaggerate, state false claims, or defame a
person or legal entity such as a competing company. Another issue is plagiarism, using
someone else’s writing without giving credit to the source. Whether the “cribbed”
material is taken from a printed book, a Web site, or a blog, plagiarism is a violation of
copyright law and may also violate your company policies. Industry standards often
have legal aspects that must be respected and cannot be ignored. For the writer this can
be a challenge, but it can be a fun challenge with rewarding results.
The rapid pace of technology means that the law cannot always stay current with the
realities of business communication. Computers had been in use for more than twenty
years before Congress passed the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998, the first
federal legislation to “move the nation’s copyright law into the digital age.” [3] Think for a
moment about the changes in computer use that have taken place since 1998, and you
will realize how many new laws are needed to clarify what is fair and ethical, what
should be prohibited, and who owns the rights to what.
For example, suppose your supervisor asks you to use your Facebook page or Twitter
account to give an occasional “plug” to your company’s products. Are you obligated to
comply? If you later change jobs, who owns your posts or tweets—are they yours, or
does your now-former employer have a right to them? And what about your network of
“friends”? Can your employer use their contact information to send marketing
messages? These and many other questions remain to be answered as technology,
industry practices, and legislation evolve. [4]
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“Our product is better than X company’s product. Their product is dangerous and you
would be a wise customer to choose us for your product solutions.”
What’s wrong with these two sentences? They may land you and your company in court.
You made a generalized claim of one product being better than another, and you stated
it as if it were a fact. The next sentence claims that your competitor’s product is
dangerous. Even if this is true, your ability to prove your claim beyond a reasonable
doubt may be limited. Your claim is stated as fact again, and from the other company’s
perspective, your sentences may be considered libel or defamation.
Libel is the written form of defamation, or a false statement that damages a reputation.
If a false statement of fact that concerns and harms the person defamed is published—
including publication in a digital or online environment—the author of that statement
may be sued for libel. If the person defamed is a public figure, they must prove malice or
the intention to do harm, but if the victim is a private person, libel applies even if the
offense cannot be proven to be malicious. Under the First Amendment you have a right
to express your opinion, but the words you use and how you use them, including the
context, are relevant to their interpretation as opinion versus fact. Always be careful to
qualify what you write and to do no harm. K E Y T A K E A W A Y
Words are governed by rules and shape our reality. Writers have a legal responsibility to
avoid plagiarism and libel. E X E R C I S E S
1. Define the word “chair.” Describe what a table is. Draw a window. Share, compare, and contrast
results with classmates
2. Define love. Describe desire. Draw patience.
3. Identify a target audience and indicate at least three words that you perceive would be
appropriate and effective for that audience. Identify a second audience (distinct from the first)
and indicate three words that you perceive would be appropriate and effective. How are the
audiences and their words similar or different? Compare your results with those of your
classmates.
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4. Create a sales letter for an audience that comes from a culture other than your own. Identify the
culture and articulate how your message is tailored to your perception of your intended
audience. Share and compare with classmates.
5. Do an online search on “online libel cases” and see what you find. Discuss your results with your
classmates.
6. In other examples beyond the grammar rules that guide our use of words, consider the online
environment. Conduct a search on the word “netiquette” and share your findings.
[1] Aristotle. (1941). De anima. In R. McKeon (Ed.), The basic works of Aristotle (J. A. Smith,
Trans.). New York, NY: Random House.
[2] Russell, B. (1962). The problems of philosophy (28th ed., p. 9). Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press. (Original work published 1912)
[3] United States Copyright Office (1998). Executive summary: Digital millennium copyright act.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved
fromhttp://www.copyright.gov/reports/studies/dmca/dmca_executive.html
[4] Tahmincioglu, E. (2009, October 11). Your boss wants you on Twitter: Companies
recognizing value of having workers promote products. MSNBC Careers. Retrieved
fromhttp://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/33090717/ns/business-careers
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4.6 Overcoming Barriers to Effective Written Communication
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E
1. Describe some common barriers to written communication and how to overcome them.
In almost any career or area of business, written communication is a key to success.
Effective writing can prevent wasted time, wasted effort, aggravation, and frustration.
The way we communicate with others both inside of our business and on the outside
goes a long way toward shaping the organization’s image. If people feel they are listened
to and able to get answers from the firm and its representatives, their opinion will be
favorable. Skillful writing and an understanding of how people respond to words are
central to accomplishing this goal.
How do we display skillful writing and a good understanding of how people respond to
words? Following are some suggestions.
Do Sweat the Small Stuff Let us begin with a college student’s e-mail to a professor:
“i am confused as to why they are not due intil 11/10 i mean the calender said
that they was due then so thats i did them do i still get credit for them or do i need
to due them over on one tape? please let me know thanks. also when are you
grading the stuff that we have done?”
What’s wrong with this e-mail? What do you observe that may act as a barrier to
communication? Let’s start with the lack of formality, including the fact that the student
neglected to tell the professor his or her name, or which specific class the question
referred to. Then there is the lack of adherence to basic vocabulary and syntax rules.
And how about the lower case “i’s” and the misspellings?
One significant barrier to effective written communication is failure to sweat the small
stuff. Spelling errors and incorrect grammar may be considered details, but they reflect
poorly on you and, in a business context, on your company. They imply either that you
are not educated enough to know you’ve made mistakes or that you are too careless to
bother correcting them. Making errors is human, but making a habit of producing error-
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filled written documents makes negative consequences far more likely to occur. When
you write, you have a responsibility to self-edit and pay attention to detail. In the long
run, correcting your mistakes before others see them will take less time and effort than
trying to make up for mistakes after the fact.
Get the Target Meaning How would you interpret this message?
“You must not let inventory build up. You must monitor carrying costs and keep
them under control. Ship any job lots of more than 25 to us at once.”
Bypassing involves the misunderstanding that occurs when the receiver completely
misses the source’s intended meaning. Words mean different things to different people
in different contexts. All that difference allows for both source and receiver to
completely miss one another’s intended goal.
Did you understand the message in the example? Let’s find out. Jerry Sullivan, in his
articleBypassing in Managerial Communication, [1] relates the story of Mr. Sato, a
manager from Japan who is new to the United States. The message came from his
superiors at Kumitomo America, a firm involved with printing machinery for the
publishing business in Japan. Mr. Sato delegated the instructions (in English as shown
above) to Ms. Brady, who quickly identified there were three lots in excess of twenty-five
and arranged for prompt shipment.
Six weeks later Mr. Sato received a second message:
“Why didn’t you do what we told you? Your quarterly inventory report indicates
you are carrying 40 lots which you were supposed to ship to Japan. You must not
violate our instructions.”
What’s the problem? As Sullivan relates, it is an example of one word, or set of words,
having more than one meaning. [2] According to Sullivan, in Japanese “more than x”
includes the reference number twenty-five. In other words, Kumitomo wanted all lots
with twenty-five or more to be shipped to Japan. Forty lots fit that description. Ms.
Brady interpreted the words as written, but the cultural context had a direct impact on
the meaning and outcome.
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You might want to defend Ms. Brady and understand the interpretation, but the lesson
remains clear. Moreover, cultural expectations differ not only internationally, but also
on many different dimensions from regional to interpersonal.
Someone raised in a rural environment in the Pacific Northwest may have a very
different interpretation of meaning from someone from New York City. Take, for
example, the word “downtown.” To the rural resident, downtown refers to the center or
urban area of any big city. To a New Yorker, however, downtown may be a direction, not
a place. One can go uptown or downtown, but when asked, “Where are you from?” the
answer may refer to a borough (“I grew up in Manhattan”) or a neighborhood (“I’m from
the East Village”).
This example involves two individuals who differ by geography, but we can further
subdivide between people raised in the same state from two regions, two people of the
opposite sex, or two people from different generations. The combinations are endless, as
are the possibilities for bypassing. While you might think you understand, requesting
feedback and asking for confirmation and clarification can help ensure that you get the
target meaning.
Sullivan also notes that in stressful situations we often think in terms of either/or
relationships, failing to recognize the stress itself. This kind of thinking can contribute to
source/receiver error. In business, he notes that managers often incorrectly assume
communication is easier than it is, and fail to anticipate miscommunication. [3]
As writers, we need to keep in mind that words are simply a means of communication,
and that meanings are in people, not the words themselves. Knowing which words your
audience understands and anticipating how they will interpret them will help you
prevent bypassing.
Consider the Nonverbal Aspects of Your Message Let’s return to the example at the beginning of this section of an e-mail from a student
to an instructor. As we noted, the student neglected to identify himself or herself and tell
the instructor which class the question referred to. Format is important, including
headers, contact information, and an informative subject line.
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This is just one example of how the nonverbal aspects of a message can get in the way of
understanding. Other nonverbal expressions in your writing may include symbols,
design, font, and the timing of delivering your message.
Suppose your supervisor has asked you to write to a group of clients announcing a new
service or product that directly relates to a service or product that these clients have
used over the years. What kind of communication will your document be? Will it be sent
as an e-mail or will it be a formal letter printed on quality paper and sent by postal mail?
Or will it be a tweet, or a targeted online ad that pops up when these particular clients
access your company’s Web site? Each of these choices involves an aspect of written
communication that is nonverbal. While the words may communicate a formal tone, the
font may not. The paper chosen to represent your company influences the perception of
it. An e-mail may indicate that it is less than formal and be easily deleted.
As another example, suppose you are a small business owner and have hired a new
worker named Bryan. You need to provide written documentation of asking Bryan to fill
out a set of forms that are required by law. Should you send an e-mail to Bryan’s home
the night before he starts work, welcoming him aboard and attaching links to IRS form
W-4 and Homeland Security form I-9? Or should you wait until he has been at work for
a couple of hours, then bring him the forms in hard copy along with a printed memo
stating that he needs to fill them out? There are no right or wrong answers, but you will
use your judgment, being aware that these nonverbal expressions are part of the
message that gets communicated along with your words.
Review, Reflect, and Revise Do you review what you write? Do you reflect on whether it serves its purpose? Where
does it miss the mark? If you can recognize it, then you have the opportunity to revise.
Writers are often under deadlines, and that can mean a rush job where not every last
detail is reviewed. This means more mistakes, and there is always time to do it right the
second time. Rather than go through the experience of seeing all the mistakes in your
“final” product and rushing off to the next job, you may need to focus more on the task
at hand and get it done correctly the first time. Go over each step in detail as you review.
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A mental review of the task and your performance is often called reflection. Reflection is
not procrastination. It involves looking at the available information and, as you review
the key points in your mind, making sure each detail is present and perfect. Reflection
also allows for another opportunity to consider the key elements and their relationship
to each other.
When you revise your document, you change one word for another, make subtle
changes, and improve it. Don’t revise simply to change the good work you’ve completed,
but instead look at it from the perspective of the reader—for example, how could this be
clearer to them? What would make it visually attractive while continuing to
communicate the message? If you are limited to words only, then does each word serve
the article or letter? No extras, but just about right. K E Y T A K E A W A Y
To overcome barriers to communication, pay attention to details; strive to understand
the target meaning; consider your nonverbal expressions; and review, reflect, and revise. E X E R C I S E S
1. Review the example of a student’s e-mail to a professor in this section, and rewrite it to
communicate the message more clearly.
2. Write a paragraph of 150–200 words on a subject of your choice. Experiment with different
formats and fonts to display it and, if you wish, print it. Compare your results with those of your
classmates.
3. How does the purpose of a document define its format and content? Think of a specific kind of
document with a specific purpose and audience. Then create a format or template suitable to
that document, purpose, and audience. Show your template to the class or post it on a class
bulletin board.
4. Write one message of at least three sentences with at least three descriptive terms and present
it to at least three people. Record notes about how they understand the message, and to what
degree their interpretations are the same of different. Share and compare with classmates.
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[1] Sullivan, J., Kameda, N., & Nobu, T. (1991). Bypassing in managerial
communication. Business Horizons, 34(1), 71–80.
[2] Sullivan, J., Kameda, N., & Nobu, T. (1991). Bypassing in managerial
communication. Business Horizons, 34(1), 71–80.
[3] Sullivan, J., Kameda, N., & Nobu, T. (1991). Bypassing in managerial
communication. Business Horizons, 34(1), 71–80.
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4.7 Additional Resources Visit AllYouCanRead.com for a list of the top ten business
magazines.http://www.allyoucanread.com/top-10-business-magazines
The Wall Street Executive Library presents a comprehensive menu of business Web
sites, publications, and other resources. http://www.executivelibrary.com
The Web site 4hb.com (For Home Business) provides many sample business
documents, as well as other resources for the small business
owner. http://www.4hb.com/index.html
The Business Owner’s Toolkit provides sample documents in more than a dozen
categories from finance to marketing to worker
safety. http://www.toolkit.com/tools/index.aspx
Words mean different things to different people—especially when translated from one
language to another. Visit this site for a list of car names “que no va” (that won’t go) in
foreign languages. http://www.autoblog.com/2008/04/30/nissan-360-the-otti-and-
the-moco
Visit “Questions and Quandaries,” the Writer’s Digest blog by Brian Klems, for a
potpourri of information about writing. http://blog.writersdigest.com/qq
Appearance counts. Read an article by communications expert Fran Lebo on enhancing
the nonverbal aspects of your document. http://ezinearticles.com/?The-Second-Law-of-
Business-Writing---Appearance-Counts&id=3039288
Visit this site to access the Sullivan [1] article on bypassing in managerial
communication.http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1038/is_n1_v34/ai_10360317
[1] Sullivan, J., Kameda, N., & Nobu, T. (1991). Bypassing in managerial
communication. Business Horizons, 34(1), 71–80.
