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Bottom of Form Perceptions of managers in Kuwait about multinational corporations' role in changing that country's business Environment Relationships between multinational corporations and developing nations are known to have benefits as well as costs, particularly for the host country. The perceptions of managers on the effects of MNCs on a developing nation are investigated. Using a sample of 1,344 Arab and non-Arab managers in Kuwait, it is found that the respondents perceive positive effects of MNCs on the business-economic, legal-political and technological environments of the country. However, the effects of MNCs on the social-cultural environment in Kuwait are perceived as negative. It is recommended that MNCs operating in Kuwait be sensitive to these perceptions to ensure harmony in future business ventures Headnote PERCEPTIONS OF MANAGERS IN KUWAIT ABOUT MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS' ROLE IN CHANGING THAT COUNTRY'S BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT* Headnote Relationships between multinational corporations (MNCs) and developing nations are known to have benefits as well as costs, particularly for the host country. The purpose of this study was to investigate the perceptions of managers on the effects of MNCs on a developing nation. Using a sample of 1344 Arab and non-Arab managers in Kuwait, the authors find the respondents perceive positive effects of MNCs on the business-economic, legal-political, and technological environments of the country. However, the effects of MNCs on the social-cultural environment in Kuwait are perceived as negative. The authors recommend that MNCs operating in Kuwait be sensitive to these perceptions to ensure harmony in future business ventures. INTRODUCTION Relationships between multinational corporations (MNCs) and developing nations often are described as controversial. In the past, developing countries exhibited emotional and official hostility towards foreign direct investment (FDI). Gradually over the past decade, however, one nation after another has changed its hostile posture and removed regulatory barriers to foreign investment. Quite simply, these countries recognized the invaluable help that FDI can provide in restructuring uncompetitive industries, revitalizing growth, attracting much needed capital, advancing technology, and improving managerial skills (Landau, 1994). With the globalization of markets and changing attitudes towards FDI, MNCs are increasing presences in developing nations. Because many of these developing nations offer sources of low-cost labor and production, as well as potential markets, the amount of investment in the developing world has been constantly increasing. For example, Banks (1995) states that developing nations received some $80 billion in cross-border direct investment. This amount accounted for 40 percent of the estimated $205 billion of direct investment worldwide. Since developing nations are estimated to account for the bulk of the 7.8 billion to 9.5 billion world population by the year 2025 (Carey, 1994), developing countries represent a vast potential market for many MNCs. Multinational corporations are often crucial change agents in developing countries (Ali and Al-Shakhis, 1990; Cichock, 1983; Dittrich, 1982; Reiffers, 1982; Walters and Blake, 1992). Meleka (1985) states that with information and technology networks, MNCs can satisfy development goals and needs of host countries and, thus, become important agents and catalysts for growth and development. A number of developing nations are located in the Middle East. Among the developing nations of the Middle East, Kuwait has been very profitable for Western multinationals, especially after the Gulf War. The government has hired many Western, mainly U.S., companies to rebuild Kuwait as a gesture of thanks for helping to liberate the country from the Iraqi invasion (O'Brien, 1994). One would expect that the continued operation of MNCs would have an impact on Kuwait's environment. Various conceptualizations of the environment have been provided in the literature. For the purpose of this study, environmental forces are grouped under four broad categories: business-economic, social-cultural, legal-political, and technological (Asheghian and Ebrahimi, 1990; Ginter and Duncan, 1990; Michman, 1989; Sawyerr, 1993). The purpose of the current study is to investigate the perceptions of managers in Kuwait regarding the role that MNCs play in changing that country's business-economic, social-cultural, legal-political, and technological environments. Thus far, no empirical investigation has been conducted on the perceptions of practicing managers on the impact of multinational corporations in Kuwait, and whether these perceptions are positive or negative. The multi-dimensional approach used in this study makes it possible to find out specifically which aspects of change are perceived to be negative, and which ones are considered positive. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE AND HYPOTHESES Effects of the MNC on Developing Countries Multinational-corporation and nation state relationships always have the potential for conflict. A survey of the fellows of the International Academy of Management (Newman, 1979), found six major sources of MNC nation-state conflict. These are: (1) ownership, (2) local unemployment, (3) transfer of technology, (4) exploitation of natural resources, (5) bribery, and (6) foreign exchange shortages. Sources of conflict are often the result of the power differential between the two parties, that is, the host country and the MNC (Emerson, 1962). The more the power balance favors the MNC, the more it can affect the environment in the host nation. Until the 1960s, this balance usually favored the multinational corporation, but recently the power balance is shifting toward the nation state. Consequently, developing countries now have more influence and effect on MNCs (Aldaeaj, Thibodeaux, and Nasif, 1991). The effects of MNCs on developing countries is widely debated. Proponents of MNCs claim that third-world host countries reap several benefits from these institutions. Usually, economic benefits are stressed (Barnet and Muller, 1974; Freeman, 1981; Gladwin and Walter, 1980; Harrison, 1994; Meleka, 1985; Parry, 1980; Patel, 1974; Travis and Crum, 1984). For example, Harrison (1994) examined the role of MNCs in four studies involving four developing nations. She concludes that MNCs pay much higher wages than domestic firms. Harrison (1994), however, did not find any validity for the pollution haven hypothesis, which claims that MNCs invest in developing nations in order to take advantage of lax environmental standards. Although there is concern over the transfer of inappropriate technology by MNCs to developing nations (Barnet and Muller, 1974; Schumacher, 1973), more recently Miyagiwa (1993) argued for complete capital market liberalization as it would yield higher national income for developing nations in the long-run. Other researchers assert that MNCs do not serve the host nations well, nor do they advance the economic development of these countries (Ashour, 1981; Barnet and Muller, 1974; Kumar, 1980; Meleka, 1985; Newman, 1979; Vernon, 1977). These critics point to the fact that many MNCs exploit the natural resources of the host country and introduce capital-intensive rather than labor-intensive technology which results in destroying jobs where unemployment rates are already high (Barnet and Muller, 1974; Kumar, 1980; Meleka, 1985). Some authors suggest that a less-developed host country's local businesses are not helped in this alliance, and there is constant fear on the part of local businesspeople that MNCs will dominate and control their economy (Kumar, 1980; Newman, 1979; Vernon, 1977). In addition, bribes and payments to the entrenched elites, coupled with an antisocial orientation, make national political development almost impossible (Newman, 1979). Consequently, developing nations are worse off as a result of MNCs (Barnet and Muller, 1974; Kumar, 1980). In reality, there are likely benefits and costs for both parties. Gray (1987) provides a list, though not exhausting, of the benefits and costs of the MNC to the host country. Jain and Puri (1981) argue that both the firm and the host country should benefit from the relationship. According to Chaudhuri (1988), when MNCs get involved in production in lessdeveloped countries they create benefits for both parties, and the actual share of the benefits accruing to each depends on their relative bargaining powers. There is a vast amount of literature available on the impact of MNCs on developing countries (Ali and Al-Shakhis, 1990; Baker, Ryans, and Howard, 1988; Cichock, 1983; Dittrich, 1982; Fayerweather, 1982; Hood and Young, 1979; Jain and Puri 1981; Kumar, 1980; Osigweh, 1985; Reiffers, 1982). The Role of MNCs in Kuwait The major impact of MNCs on Kuwait's environment has been on the economy (Al-Sharrad, 1980; Ismael, 1982). Al-Sharrad (1980) states that the primary contribution of the MNCs to Kuwait's development was through developing the oil industry. Oil wealth, he argues, led to the commercial capitalist economic system in Kuwait. The vibrant commercial, industrial, and construction activity in Kuwait acted as the "pull-factor" and brought in many foreign workers and large scale immigration. This had two major unexpected results. One was crime. Al-Sharrad (1980) illustrates the increase in the numbers and types of crimes in Kuwait between 1969 and 1978. Other results were the creation of a "privileged class," the Kuwaitis, wage inequalities, and other employment-related discrimination against nonKuwaitis. Consequently, the rising crime rate and social inequalities have created new tensions in the society, and a growing resistance toward change (Al-Sharrad, 1980; Ismael, 1982). According to Ismael (1982), the introduction of Western goods, technology, and way of life pose a threat to the cultural fabric of Kuwait. Hence, we hypothesize: Hypothesis 1: Managers perceive negative effects of MNCs on the cultural environment of Kuwait. According to Ajami (1980), Arab elites in the Middle East believe that multinational corporations have a positive impact on Arab economic development. Najafbagy (1985), also, found that Kuwaiti government officials have a positive attitude toward MNC operations. No empirical investigation, however, has been conducted to see whether or not these positive attitudes are shared by practicing managers. Based on the results of studies by Ajami (1980), Harrison (1994), Miyagiwa (1993), and Najafbagy (1985), the following hypotheses are formulated regarding the perceived economic and technological effects of MNCs on Kuwait: Hypothesis 2: Managers perceive positive effects of MNCs on the business economic environment of Kuwait. Hypothesis 3: Managers perceive positive effects of MNCs on the technological environment of Kuwait. In the absence of any concrete empirical evidence, we developed the following propositions based on our experience in the developing nations and reasoning. These could have important implications for the MNCs operating in this area. We, therefore, expect: Proposition 1: Managers perceive the role of MNCs on the political-legal environment of Kuwait as positive. Proposition 2: Kuwaiti managers have less favorable perceptions of MNCs than other managers. Proposition 3: Younger executives have more favorable perceptions of MNCs than older managers. Proposition 4: More educated executives have more favorable perceptions of MNCs than less educated managers. METHODOLOGY Data Collection A questionnaire was used to collect data for this study. Unlike conducting survey research using a random sampling approach in the U.S., it is impossible to obtain an acceptable response rate through mail surveys in Kuwait. This is because similar to many non-Western nations, responding to mail surveys is not an acceptable norm or a common practice in Kuwait. Therefore, similar to approaches taken by other researchers (Teagardin, Von Glinow, Bowen, Frayn, Nason, Huo, Milliman, Arias, Butler, Geringer, Kim, Scullion, Lowe, and Frost, 1995), personal contacts and a quasi-theoretical sampling approach were used in this research. Questionnaires were distributed to the managers and collected, primarily by the first author. In a few cases, top managers of the participating organizations helped in distributing and collecting the questionnaires. They did so in sealed envelopes. Very few were returned by mail to the researcher. Confidentiality of the responses was emphasized at all times. Three thousand questionnaires were distributed to managers in companies and government agencies that agreed to participate in the study. 1344 usable questionnaires were returned, resulting in a 45 percent response rate. Approximately, half of the subjects were from the public sector, and the other half were from private companies in Kuwait. Three nationality groups were represented in the sample: Kuwaiti, other Arab, and non-Arab managers. Characteristics of the sample are presented in Table 1. Both English and Arabic versions of the instrument were used to collect data. 772 managers responded with the English version, and 572 managers used the Arabic instrument. The managers chose the language with which they were more comfortable. A "reverse-translation" method was used to ensure the equivalency of the two versions of the questionnaire (Hofstede, 1984; Mullen, 1995; Nasif, Al-Daeaj, Ebrahimi, and Thibodeaux, 1991; Sekaran, 1983; Teagardin et al., 1995). Tests are presented in the following sections showing that both versions are equally valid and reliable. Instrument Two sets of variables used in this study are represented in two sections of the research instrument. The first set of variables consists of the demographic characteristics of managers and their organizations Demographic characteristics such as age, gender, race, and education are considered important variables in psychological and management research (Tsui and O'Reilly, 1989). For example, researchers have examined the effects of individuals' demographic characteristics on turnover, organizational attachment, corporate strategic change, and technical communication (O'Reilly, Caldwell, and Barnett, 1989; Tsui, Egan and O'Reilly, 1992; Wiersema and Bantel, 1992; Zenger and Lawrence, 1989). These characteristics also have been studied in cross-cultural management research (Ebrahimi, 1997; Ebrahimi and Miner, 1991; Miner, Wachtel, and Ebrahimi, 1989). For the present study, organization type, job title, rank, nationality, age, education, gender, and religion were selected as pertinent demographic and organizational characteristics. The second set of variables in the instrument relates to the environmental dimensions in Kuwait that may be affected by MNCs. Four major dimensions of the environment are included in the instrument. These are: business-economic, social-cultural, legal-political, and technological. The demographic and organizational characteristics are independent variables. The opinions of the subjects about the effects of MNCs on change in Kuwait are the dependent variables. Two types of data were collected, nominal and ordinal. Demographic and organizational characteristic variables in section I of the questionnaire were measured with either nominal or ordinal scales. Data measuring the managers' perceptions of the impact of MNCs was obtained using a fivepoint Likert scale. Scores of 1 and 2 represent negative perceptions, 3 indicates no effect, and 4 and 5 scores represent positive feelings. Therefore, all scores for section II of the instrument examining managers' perceptions of the effects of MNCs on Kuwait are ordinal measures. At the end of the instrument, a series of open-ended questions was asked. These questions were designed to solicit further opinions with regard to the role of MNCs as well as other factors in changing the Kuwaiti society. Reliability A pilot-study was conducted to help in establishing reliability and validity of the instrument. The sample for the pilot study was made up of Kuwaiti students in the United States and the personnel of the Cultural Division and University Offices of the Embassy of the State of Kuwait in Washington, D.C. The final research instrument was modified based on comments obtained from the participants in the pilot study. The subjects of the pilot study (n=25) had generally negative opinions of MNCs' effects on the social-cultural and legal-political environments in Kuwait. However, they had positive opinions on the MNCs' effects on the business-economic and technological environments. Reliability tests were conducted for the data obtained in the pilot study as well as the actual study using Cronbach's (1951) alpha. Significantly high Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficients for the items used in the research instrument resulted. All the alpha scores, for both the pilot study and the total sample, are above the 0.79 level which is acceptable for this kind of research (Nunnally, 1978) and indicates good internal consistency for this scale. Hence, we may conclude that the research questionnaire is a reliable instrument for the purposes of this study. Validity The validity concerns of this study are content (internal) and construct (external) validities. The items included in the study's questionnaire are based on an extensive review of the literature. Carmines and Zeller (1979) argue that this is the first requirement in establishing content validity. Forty-two items are included in the instrument to measure the four dimensions. Twelve questions were used for the social-cultural dimension of the environment in Kuwait. Seven items were used for the legal-political environment, sixteen, for the business-economic environment, and seven, for the technological environment in Kuwait. Campbell (1976) and Campbell and Stanley (1963) indicate that the establishment of content validity will greatly enhance construct validity. The instrument development process used for this study provides content and, thus, helps construct validity for the questionnaire. Carmines and Zeller (1979) state that with proper theoretical guidance, factor analysis can be useful in establishing both content and construct validities. Factor analysis examines internal variance of the items to determine if they are grouped around the dimensions they are supposed to measure. The grouping of items along expected and theoretically based environmental dimensions provides strong support for both the content and construct validity of the questionnaire. Therefore, factor analysis was used to check for content validity. The purpose was to determine if the 42 questionnaire items about the environment were appropriately grouped in the four major dimensions of the environment. In other words, we wanted to see whether or not the 42 items group into business-economic, social-cultural, legal-political, and technological environments. Another purpose was to ascertain if there were any sub-dimensions within these major dimensions. The results of the factor analysis (Table 2) show that there are four major dimensions with a total of ten sub-dimensions. All items in the questionnaire were placed in the right dimension except one item, that is, item 55. Item 55, related to government services, water, electricity, roads, and so forth, was about infrastructure. Hindsight indicates that this item belongs to the business-economic dimension rather than the legal-political dimension. All of the statistical analyses for the results presented in this article have been conducted after shifting item 55 from the legal-political dimension to the business-economic subenvironment. Another issue related to validity in this study is the translation of the questionnaire from English to Arabic. The question is "do both the English and the Arabic versions measure the same thing?" This is the equivalency of instruments problem (Nasif, Al-Daeaj, Ebrahimi, and Thibodeaux, 1991). The double-translation method used for this instrument sought to insure the equivalency of meaning. Another supporting argument for the equivalency of the meanings is the high reliability of the different versions of the instrument. Reliability is a prerequisite of validity. The two versions of the instrument used in this study were equally reliable. The Cronbach's alpha reliability scores for the different scales of each version range from .79 to .89, which exceeds the threshold of .79 for exploratory research (Nunnally, 1978). RESULTS Perceptions of Managers Summary statistics for the perceptions of the managers on the role of MNCs in changing the Kuwaiti environment are presented in Table 3. These statistics are the mean scores of each group's perceptions of the role of MNCs on changing the major subenvironments. As mentioned earlier, a five-point Likert scale measured respondent's perceptions. The responses ranged from 1 and 2 for negative effects, 3 for neutral, and 4 and 5 for positive effects. Generally, the scores on Table 3 show a positive effect perception (mean = 3.00 or greater) of the managers. Managers generally perceive that MNCs have positive effects on change in Kuwait. The most positive effects of the MNCs are perceived to be on technological development and the development of industries such as oil and gas, construction, and banking in Kuwait. As expected, the only negative effects of MNCs are perceived to be on the cultural environment of Kuwait. Test of Hypotheses and Propositions Hypotheses were tested using Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) goodness of fit test. Propositions were tested using statistical tests of differences among groups. T-test statistics with probability less than or equal to .OS were used is supported. These were used to test for differences between groups. The ttests used pooled variance estimates and 2-tail probabilities. Hypothesis 1. The hypothesis is that managers perceive negative effects of MNCs on the social-cultural environment in Kuwait. Since this hypothesis deals with one-group only, the T-test is not an appropriate measure. The overall means on the influence of MNCs on the cultural environment are 2.53 for Kuwaiti, 2.67 for other Arab, 2.92 for Other, and 2.71 for the Total. All the means are less than 3.00 that is the "no-effect" response, indicating negative perceptions of the social-cultural impact of MNCs. To test for the significance of the difference between the total of 2.71 and 3.00, a Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) goodness of fit test was used. This test compares the actual distribution to a hypothesized distribution, in this case a normal distribution with mean = 3.00 and standard deviation = 1.00. The K-S Z score was 9.09 with p = .000 (two tail) demonstrating statistically significant differences. Hypothesis 1 is supported. These managers' perception of the impact of MNCs on the social-cultural environment of Kuwait is significantly negative. Hypothesis 2. We hypothesized that managers perceive positive effects of MNCs on the business-economic environment. The mean score of 3.73 indicates that the perceptions of the effects of MNCs on this dimension of Kuwait's environment are positive. The K-S Z score of 16.161 for the effects of MNCs on the business-economic is significant at .000 level. Hence, hypothesis 2 is strongly supported. These managers seem to consider MNCs as having a positive influence on the business-economic development of the country. Hypothesis 3. Based on the literature, the hypothesis is that managers' perception of the technological impact of the MNCs would be positive as well. The mean score of 4.34 for the technological impact is the highest among the four environmental dimensions. The corresponding K-S Z score of 23.304 is significant at the P=.000 level. Hypothesis 3, therefore, is strongly supported. It seems that managers perceive MNCs as having a major positive impact on the technological environment in Kuwait. Proposition 1. This proposition stated that managers perceive MNCs as positively influencing the political-legal environment of Kuwait. The mean scores of the influence of MNCs on the political-legal environment were analyzed using the K-S test comparing 3.22 to 3.00 which produced a Z-score of 10.22, with p= .000 (two tail). This difference is significant. We may conclude that these managers perceived that MNCs had positive effects on the political-legal environment. Proposition 1, therefore, is supported. Proposition 2. We postulated that the nationalities of the subjects affect their perceptions, and the Kuwaiti managers have less favorable perceptions of MNCs than other managers. The t-test results presented in Table 4 very strongly support the effects of nationality. All tests were statistically significant, mostly at p = .000 levels. The only non-significant difference was about the political-legal environment between other Arabs and other nationality groups. Nationality of the subjects did make a difference. Kuwaiti managers had the least favorable perceptions. Proposition 2 is supported. Proposition 3. We proposed that younger managers have more favorable perceptions of MNCs than older managers. To test this proposition, managers were divided into two groups based on the median age, which was 36. T-tests are shown in Table 5. The groups had significant differences in perceptions of the political-legal and businesseconomic dimensions. Older managers had more favorable perceptions. Overall perceptions also were significantly different. Older managers again had the more favorable perceptions. These results are the opposite of what we proposed. Age made a difference but in the opposite direction. Therefore, Proposition 3 did not receive support. Proposition 4. We postulated that more educated managers have more favorable perceptions of MNCs than less educated managers. To test this proposition, respondents were divided into two groups based on college degree, those who had a degree and those who did not. T-tests are presented in Table 5. Most of the differences were significant, including the overall perceptions. The interesting result was that in all cases, the less educated managers had the more favorable perceptions. Education did make a difference in the opposite direction. Hence, proposition 4 is also rejected and the reverse is supported. DISCUSSION The purpose of this study was to answer the research question, "What do managers in Kuwait think is the effect of MNCs on change in Kuwait?" Managers' perceptions about the effects of MNCs were solicited using a questionnaire regarding four major dimensions in the environment: business-economic, social-cultural, legal-political, and technological dimensions. Factor analysis of the data indicated the presence of ten factors grouped into four major dimensions as hypothesized by prior conceptualization of the environment, thus, supporting validity of the research instrument. Three hypotheses were derived from the existing literature on multinational and developing nations. The findings indicate that, in general, the managers surveyed perceive that MNCs have a positive effect on change in Kuwait, especially on business-economic and technological development in Kuwait. The only negative effect of MNCs that the managers perceived was on the social-cultural environment. The managers perceptions seem to attribute the cause to the foreign personnel MNCs bring to Kuwait. In addition, as expected, Kuwaiti managers had the least favorable perceptions of the influences of MNCs on their country. These findings have far reaching implications for MNCs operating in Kuwait. Further studies are needed to test whether these perceptions reflect reality. If MNCs are found to have negative influences on the Kuwaiti culture, a policy implication for the government is to take necessary steps to remedy the situation. If reality is different and the perceptions found in this study are incorrect, then, the MNCs should disseminate information to the public to clarify these issues. In addition, we postulated and tested four propositions. As expected, results indicated that the participants in this study perceived MNCs to have positive effects on the political-legal environment of Kuwait. It seems that these managers have noticed improvements in the political-legal climate of Kuwait and attribute this progress to MNCs. Contrary to our expectations, older and less educated managers had more favorable opinions of the influence of MNCs on Kuwait. It is difficult to conclude whether these findings are particular to this group of managers or reflective of the opinions of all managers in Kuwait. Future studies may refute or support these results. The focus of this study was on the perceptions of managers in Kuwait. Given the contextual similarities between Kuwait and many other Arab states, however, we believe that these findings may be generalizable to other developing nations of the Arab Middle East. At the end of the questionnaire, the managers were asked to answer a number of open-ended questions. These answers gave additional insight about their views of MNCs. More than 73 percent stated that MNCs definitely affected the Kuwaiti environment. However, the managers also believed that other factors, such as the oil wealth, actions of the Kuwaiti government, the influence of neighboring countries, the fact that many Kuwaitis travel abroad and attend foreign colleges and universities, as well as the media, affect change in Kuwait. In several areas, the managers expressed negative opinions regarding MNCs. Kuwaiti managers expressed the view that MNCs discriminated against Kuwaitis, and tended to favor other Arabs over Kuwaiti managers. Also, they believe that if the country was poor, MNCs would have affected Kuwait more negatively. Finally, these managers believe that the importation of foreign laborers has caused increased crime in Kuwait. Since the MNCs are vitally involved in the host country, they can not remain in business unless they serve the well being of the host society. It is to the advantage of these companies, as well as to the host nations, to ensure a positive business and social climate. Most of the respondents in this study are of the opinion that MNCs are good for the economic/technological development of Kuwait. However, the perceptions of the respondents are negative regarding the influence of MNCs on the culture of Kuwait. MNCs operating in Kuwait and other developing nations must become more sensitive to this issue in order to ensure stability and continued harmony in their operations in these countries. Perhaps, MNCs should also implement programs to enhance public perceptions of their role in the betterment of the business, economic, and political environments of developing nations. Limitations There are a number of limitations to this study. First, this study is based on a survey of perceptions. Causal inferences cannot be made from the results of this study. Second, the study does not distinguish between direct and indirect effects of MNCs as respondents were not asked to make a judgement on this issue. Thus, in addition to the causal direction of the effect, determination of the nature of the effect is also outside the scope of this study. This study is concerned only with the role of MNCs in change in Kuwait, as the actual changes in Kuwait were not studied. Third, the study focuses only on Kuwait at a certain period of time. Results may be generalized to other nations, but only with caution. Repeating this study at another time might yield different results. Finally, non-response bias may limit study results. Managers who declined to respond to this survey may have similar or different opinions on the influence of MNCs with respect to changing the Kuwaiti's environment. It also should be recognized that reliance on managers' perceptions inevitably limits the reliability of the findings. Top of Form
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