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Psychology

CHAPTER13 Development over the Life Span

Development Over the Life Span

• From conception through the first year – Developmental psychologists

• Study physiological and cognitive changes across the life span and how these are affected by a person’s genetic predispositions, culture, circumstances, and experiences

– Socialization • The process by which children learn the rules and

behavior expected of them by society

Conception thru the First Year LO13.1 Outline the three stages of prenatal development, noting the hallmarks of each

stage.

• Prenatal development – Zygote: Single-celled egg – Embryo: Inner portion of egg – Fetus: An eight-week-old organism

Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.2 Describe six factors that can be harmful during a woman’s pregnancy.

• Agents that cross the placenta 1. German measles 2. X-rays and other radiation 3. Sexually transmitted diseases 4. Cigarette smoking 5. Maternal stress 6. Drugs

Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.3 Describe some inborn abilities that infants have, and also some cultural

influences on physical and psychological development.

• Physical abilities – Newborn reflexes

• Rooting • Sucking • Swallowing • Grasping

Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.3 Describe some inborn abilities that infants have, and also some cultural

influences on physical and psychological development.

• Perceptual abilities – Visual abilities

• Quickly develops beyond initial range of eight inches.

• Can distinguish contrasts, shadows, and edges.

– Other senses • Hearing

• Touch

• Smell

Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.3 Describe some inborn abilities that infants have, and also some cultural

influences on physical and psychological development.

• Culture and maturation – Many aspects of development depend on

customs • Differences in babies’ sleep arrangements reflect

cultural and parental values.

Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.4 Discuss how contact comfort and separation anxiety contribute to feelings of

attachment.

• Attachment – A deep emotional bond that an infant develops

with its primary caretaker. – Contact comfort

• In primates, the innate pleasure derived from close physical contact.

• The basis of the infant’s first attachment. – Tested using the Strange Situation procedure

• A parent-infant “separation and reunion” procedure that is staged in a laboratory to test the security of a child’s attachment.

Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.4 Discuss how contact comfort and separation anxiety contribute to feelings of

attachment.

The rise and fall of separation anxiety

Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.4 Discuss how contact comfort and separation anxiety contribute to feelings of

attachment.

• Types of attachment – Secure

• A parent-infant relationship in which the baby is secure when the parent is present, distressed by separation, and delighted by reunion.

– Insecure • A parent-infant relationship in

which the baby clings to the parent, cries at separation, and reacts with anger or apathy to reunion.

Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.5 List four factors that contribute to insecure attachment.

• What causes insecure attachment? – Abandonment and deprivation in the first year

or two of life. – Parenting that is abusive, neglectful, or erratic

because the parent is chronically irresponsible or clinically depressed.

– The child’s own genetically influenced temperament.

– Stressful circumstances in the child’s family.

Conception thru the First Year, cont’ LO13.5 List four factors that contribute to insecure attachment.

• Cognitive development – The development of language and thought

from infancy throughout childhood is a marvel to anyone who has ever watch a baby grow up.

Cognitive Development LO13.6 List the milestones of language development that occur between the first two

months and six years of life.

• Language development – Acquisition of speech begins in the first few

months. • Infants are responsive to pitch, intensity, and sound.

– By 4 to 6 months of age, children can recognize their names and other words regularly spoken.

– By 6 to 12 months of age, children become familiar with the sound structure of their language.

Cognitive Development LO13.6 List the milestones of language development that occur between the first two

months and six years of life.

• Language development, cont’ – By 11 months, infants use symbolic gestures. – At about 12 months, infants use words to label

objects. – Between 18 to 24 months, toddlers combine 2

to 3 words into telegraphic speech.

Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.7 Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, and

explain the defining characteristics of each stage.

• Thinking – According to Piaget, children’s minds

constantly adapt to new situations and experiences.

– Two adaptive processes • Assimilation: absorbing new information into

existing cognitive structures. • Accommodation: modifying existing cognitive

structures in response to new information.

Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.7 Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, and

explain the defining characteristics of each stage.

• Sensorimotor stage – Birth to 2 years – Infant learns through concrete actions:

looking, touching, putting things in the mouth, sucking, grasping.

– “Thinking” consists of coordinating sensory information with bodily movements.

– Major accomplishment is object permanence. • The understanding that an object continues to exist

even when you cannot see or touch it.

Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.7 Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, and

explain the defining characteristics of each stage.

• Preoperational stage – Ages 2 to 7 – Children still lack the cognitive abilities

necessary for understanding abstract principles.

• Egocentric • Cannot grasp concept of conservation

Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.7 Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, and

explain the defining characteristics of each stage.

• Concrete operations – Ages 7 to 12 – Children’s thinking is still grounded in

concrete experiences and concepts, but they can now understand conservation, reversibility, and causation.

Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.7 Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, and

explain the defining characteristics of each stage.

• Formal operations stage – Ages 12 to adulthood – Teenagers are capable of abstract reasoning

• Can compare and classify ideas • Can reason about situations not personally

experienced • Can think about the future • Can search systematically for solutions

Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.8 Discuss four modifications of Piaget’s theory that have developed from research

findings.

• Current views – Cognitive abilities develop in continuous,

overlapping waves rather than discrete steps or stages.

– Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget thought.

– Children, even infants, reveal cognitive abilities much earlier than Piaget believed possible.

– Cognitive development is influenced by a child’s culture.

Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.8 Discuss four modifications of Piaget’s theory that have developed from research

findings.

• Testing infants’ knowledge – Infants look longer at

objects that seem to violate physical laws than those that do not.

• Surprise indicates their expectations were violated.

• They must know what is physically plausible for this to occur.

Cognitive Development, cont’ LO13.8 Discuss four modifications of Piaget’s theory that have developed from research

findings.

• Vygotsky’s Theory of Sociocultural Influences – Children develop mental representations of

the world through culture and language, and that adults play a major role in their children’s development by constantly guiding and teaching them.

Moral Development LO13.9 Discuss the evidence for and against the proposition that moral development

occurs in distinct stages over time.

• Moral development: Kohlberg’s theory – Children’s ability to understand right from

wrong evolved along with the rest of their cognitive abilities.

– Progresses through three levels: • Young children obey for fear of being punished • At age 10, moral judgments shift to loyalty • In adulthood, moral standards are developed

Moral Development LO13.9 Discuss the evidence for and against the proposition that moral development

occurs in distinct stages over time.

• Current views – The child’s emerging ability to understand right

from wrong, and to behave accordingly, depends on the emergence of conscience and moral emotions such as shame, guilt, and empathy.

– Some researchers suggest that the capacity for understanding right from wrong, like that for language, is inborn.

– Many researchers are seeking a middle ground by studying gene-environment interactions.

Moral Development, cont’ LO13.10 Compare the ways in which power assertion, inductive appeals, self-regulation,

and conscience contribute to moral development.

• Getting children to be good – Power assertion

• A method of child rearing in which the parent uses punishment and authority to correct the child’s misbehavior.

– Induction • A method of child rearing in which the parent

appeals to the child’s own abilities, sense of responsibility, and feelings for others in correcting the child’s misbehavior.

Moral Development, cont’ LO13.10 Compare the ways in which power assertion, inductive appeals, self-regulation,

and conscience contribute to moral development.

• Self-control and conscience – Learn to delay gratification

• This ability allows a child to control negative emotions, pay attention to the task at hand, and do well in school, from kindergarten to college.

Gender Development LO13.11 Distinguish between biological sex, gender identity, gender typing, and intersex

conditions.

• Gender Development – Gender identity: The fundamental sense of being male

or female; it is independent of whether the person conforms to the social and cultural rules of gender.

– Gender typing: Process by which children learn the abilities, interests, and behaviors associated with being masculine or feminine in their culture.

– Intersex conditions: Conditions in which chromosomal or hormonal anomalies cause a child to be born with ambiguous genitals, or genitals that conflict with the infant’s chromosomes.

Gender Development, cont’ LO13.12 Summarize the basic findings regarding biological, cognitive, and learning

influences on gender identity and gender typing.

• Influences on gender development – Biological factors: Biological researchers believe

that early play and toy preferences have a basis in prenatal hormones, genes, or brain organization.

– Cognitive factors: Cognitive psychologists suggest that toy preferences are based on gender schemas, or the mental network of knowledge, beliefs, metaphors, and expectations about what it means to be male or female.

– Learning factors: Gender-appropriate play may be reinforced by parents, teachers, and peers.

Gender Development, cont’ LO13.12 Summarize the basic findings regarding biological, cognitive, and learning

influences on gender identity and gender typing.

Gender schema: A cognitive schema (mental network) of knowledge, beliefs,metaphors, and expectations about what it means to be male or female.

Adolescence LO13.13 Outline the physiological changes that girls and boys experience during

adolescence.

• The physiology of adolescence – Until puberty, boys and girls produce roughly

the same levels of androgens and estrogens. – The onset of puberty depends on both

biological and environmental factors. – The onset and length of puberty vary

considerably.

Adolescence, cont’ LO13.14 Outline the psychological and behavior changes that girls and boys experience

during adolescence.

• Adolescence Period of life from puberty until adulthood. – Adrenarche: A time in middle childhood when

the adrenal glands begin producing the adrenal hormone DHEA and other hormones that affect cognitive and social development.

– Puberty: The age at which a person becomes capable of sexual reproduction.

– Menarche: The onset of menstruation during puberty.

Adolescence, cont’ LO13.14 Outline the psychological and behavior changes that girls and boys experience

during adolescence.

• Timing of puberty – Onset of puberty depends on biological and

environmental factors. – Early vs. late onset

• Early-maturing boys have more positive views of their bodies and are more likely to smoke, binge drink, and break the law.

• Early-maturing girls are usually socially popular but also regarded by peer group as precocious and sexually active. They are more likely to fight with parents, drop out of school, and have a negative body image.

Adolescence, cont’ LO13.14 Outline the psychological and behavior changes that girls and boys experience

during adolescence.

• Adolescence: Media perception and reality – The rate of violent crimes committed by

adolescents has been dropping steadily since 1993.

– Narcissism is on the rise. – According to the National Youth Risk Behavior

Survey, today’s teenagers are more sexually conservative than their parents were at their age.

Adolescence, cont’ LO13.14 Outline the psychological and behavior changes that girls and boys experience

during adolescence.

• Areas of adolescent turmoil – Conflict with parents – Mood swings or depression – Higher rates of reckless, rule-breaking, and

risky behavior

Adolescence, cont’ LO13.14 Outline the psychological and behavior changes that girls and boys experience

during adolescence.

• Adulthood – Many philosophers, writers, and scientists

have speculated on the course of adult development. Are the changes of adulthood predictable, like in childhood?

Adulthood LO13.15 List the eight “crises” of development proposed by Erik Erikson.

• Erikson’s eight stages – Identity vs. role confusion

Adolescence (ages 13–19) – Intimacy vs. isolation

Young adulthood (ages 20–40) – Generativity vs. stagnation

Middle adulthood (ages 40–65) – Ego integrity vs. despair

Late adulthood (ages 65 and older)

– Trust vs. mistrust Infancy (birth–age 1)

– Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Toddler (ages 1–2)

– Initiative vs. guilt Preschool (ages 3–5)

– Competence vs. inferiority Elementary school (ages 6–12)

Adulthood LO13.15 List the eight “crises” of development proposed by Erik Erikson.

• Adult development – Psychological concerns can occur at any time

in life, therefore stage theories are no longer used to understand how adults change or stay the same.

– Adult development is an ongoing process.

Adulthood, cont’ LO13.16 Outline the psychological and behavioral changes that women and men

experience as they progress through emerging adulthood and middle age.

• The transitions of life – Emerging adulthood (ages 18–25)

• Phase of life distinct from adolescence and adulthood • In some ways an adult, in some ways not

– The middle years (ages 35–65) • Perceived by many as the prime of life

– Menopause • The cessation of menstruation and of the production of

ova; it is usually a gradual process lasting up to several years

Old Age LO13.17 Summarize the findings regarding declines or improvements in areas of

cognitive functioning as people age.

• After roughly age 65, adults start scoring lower on tests of reasoning, spatial ability, and complex problem solving

• It takes them longer to retrieve words and names, dates, and other information

• Speed of cognitive processing in general slows down

• Older people vary in this respect, with some declining significantly and others remaining sharp

Old Age, cont’ LO13.18 Distinguish between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence, and note how

each type is affected with advancing age.

• Some types of thinking change, others stay the same. – Fluid intelligence: the capacity for deductive

reasoning and the ability to use new information to solve problems; relatively independent of education, declines in old age.

– Crystallized intelligence: cognitive skills and specific knowledge of information acquired over a lifetime; depends heavily on education, remains stable over lifetime.

Old Age, cont’ LO13.18 Distinguish between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence, and note how

each type is affected with advancing age.

• Apparent senility is often caused by malnutrition, prescription medications, harmful combinations of medications, and over-the-counter drugs.

• Depression and passivity may result from the loss of meaningful activity, intellectual stimulation, goals to pursue, and control over events.

• Weakness, frailty, and even many of the diseases associated with old age are often caused by sedentary lifestyles.

The Wellsprings of Resilience LO13.19 Describe the factors that make most children resilient in the face of adversity, and comment on whether early childhood trauma foretells later adult maladjustment.

• Are adults prisoners of childhood? – Research psychologists have questioned the

psychodynamic assumption that childhood traumas have emotional effects that inevitably continue into adulthood.

– Considerable evidence disputes this claim.

• Challenging our assumptions – Overcome effects of war, childhood illness,

abusive or alcoholic parents, early deprivation, or being sexually molested.

Slide Number 1
Development Over the Life Span
Conception thru the First Year�LO13.1 Outline the three stages of prenatal development, noting the hallmarks of each stage.
Conception thru the First Year, cont’�LO13.2 Describe six factors that can be harmful during a woman’s pregnancy.
Conception thru the First Year, cont’ �LO13.3 Describe some inborn abilities that infants have, and also some cultural influences on physical and psychological development.
Conception thru the First Year, cont’ �LO13.3 Describe some inborn abilities that infants have, and also some cultural influences on physical and psychological development.
Conception thru the First Year, cont’ �LO13.3 Describe some inborn abilities that infants have, and also some cultural influences on physical and psychological development.
Conception thru the First Year, cont’�LO13.4 Discuss how contact comfort and separation anxiety contribute to feelings of attachment.
Conception thru the First Year, cont’�LO13.4 Discuss how contact comfort and separation anxiety contribute to feelings of attachment.
Conception thru the First Year, cont’�LO13.4 Discuss how contact comfort and separation anxiety contribute to feelings of attachment.
Conception thru the First Year, cont’ �LO13.5 List four factors that contribute to insecure attachment.
Conception thru the First Year, cont’ �LO13.5 List four factors that contribute to insecure attachment.
Cognitive Development�LO13.6 List the milestones of language development that occur between the first two months and six years of life.
Cognitive Development�LO13.6 List the milestones of language development that occur between the first two months and six years of life.
Cognitive Development, cont’�LO13.7 Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, and explain the defining characteristics of each stage.
Cognitive Development, cont’�LO13.7 Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, and explain the defining characteristics of each stage.
Cognitive Development, cont’�LO13.7 Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, and explain the defining characteristics of each stage.
Cognitive Development, cont’�LO13.7 Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, and explain the defining characteristics of each stage.
Cognitive Development, cont’�LO13.7 Describe the four stages of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, and explain the defining characteristics of each stage.
Cognitive Development, cont’�LO13.8 Discuss four modifications of Piaget’s theory that have developed from research findings.
Cognitive Development, cont’�LO13.8 Discuss four modifications of Piaget’s theory that have developed from research findings.
Cognitive Development, cont’�LO13.8 Discuss four modifications of Piaget’s theory that have developed from research findings.
Moral Development�LO13.9 Discuss the evidence for and against the proposition that moral development occurs in distinct stages over time.
Moral Development�LO13.9 Discuss the evidence for and against the proposition that moral development occurs in distinct stages over time.
Moral Development, cont’�LO13.10 Compare the ways in which power assertion, inductive appeals, self-regulation, and conscience contribute to moral development.
Moral Development, cont’�LO13.10 Compare the ways in which power assertion, inductive appeals, self-regulation, and conscience contribute to moral development.
Gender Development�LO13.11 Distinguish between biological sex, gender identity, gender typing, and intersex conditions.
Gender Development, cont’�LO13.12 Summarize the basic findings regarding biological, cognitive, and learning influences on gender identity and gender typing.
Gender Development, cont’�LO13.12 Summarize the basic findings regarding biological, cognitive, and learning influences on gender identity and gender typing.
Adolescence�LO13.13 Outline the physiological changes that girls and boys experience during adolescence.
Adolescence, cont’�LO13.14 Outline the psychological and behavior changes that girls and boys experience during adolescence.
Adolescence, cont’�LO13.14 Outline the psychological and behavior changes that girls and boys experience during adolescence.
Adolescence, cont’�LO13.14 Outline the psychological and behavior changes that girls and boys experience during adolescence.
Adolescence, cont’�LO13.14 Outline the psychological and behavior changes that girls and boys experience during adolescence.
Adolescence, cont’�LO13.14 Outline the psychological and behavior changes that girls and boys experience during adolescence.
Adulthood�LO13.15 List the eight “crises” of development proposed by Erik Erikson.
Adulthood�LO13.15 List the eight “crises” of development proposed by Erik Erikson.
Adulthood, cont’�LO13.16 Outline the psychological and behavioral changes that women and men experience as they progress through emerging adulthood and middle age.
Old Age�LO13.17 Summarize the findings regarding declines or improvements in areas of cognitive functioning as people age.
Old Age, cont’�LO13.18 Distinguish between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence, and note how each type is affected with advancing age.
Old Age, cont’�LO13.18 Distinguish between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence, and note how each type is affected with advancing age.
The Wellsprings of Resilience�LO13.19 Describe the factors that make most children resilient in the face of adversity, and comment on whether early childhood trauma foretells later adult maladjustment.
The Wellsprings of Resilience�LO13.19 Describe the factors that make most children resilient in the face of adversity, and comment on whether early childhood trauma foretells later adult maladjustment.