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Psychology

CHAPTER14

Theories of

Personality

Personality and Traits

• Defining personality and traits

– Personality

• Distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behavior,

thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterizes

an individual.

– Trait

• A characteristic of an individual, describing a

habitual way of behaving, thinking, and feeling.

Psychodynamic Theories of Personality LO14.1 Explain why Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis is called psychodynamic.

• Psychodynamic theories of personality

– Psychoanalysis

• A theory of personality and a method of

psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud; it

emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts.

– Psychodynamic theories

• Theories that explain behavior and personality in

terms of unconscious energy dynamics within the

individual.

Theories of Personality, cont’ LO14.2 Describe the structure of personality according to psychoanalysis, and explain the

main features of each component of that structure.

• The structure of personality

– Id: Part of the personality containing inherited

psychic energy, particularly sexual and

aggressive instincts.

– Ego: Part of the personality that represents

reason, good sense, and rational self-control.

– Superego: Part of the personality that

represents conscience, morality, and social

standards.

Theories of Personality, cont’ LO14.3 List five psychological defense mechanisms, giving a definition and example of

each.

• Defense mechanisms

– Methods used by the ego to prevent

unconscious anxiety or threatening thoughts

from entering consciousness

1. Repression

2. Projection

3. Displacement

4. Regression

5. Denial

Theories of Personality, cont’ LO14.4 Discuss the five stages of psychosexual development, and identify the hallmarks

of each stage.

• Personality development

– Freud’s stages

• Oral

• Anal

• Phallic

• Latency

• Genital

– Fixation occurs when stages aren’t resolved

successfully.

Theories of Personality, cont’ LO14.5 Discuss current views of Freud’s theory of personality, noting some aspects of the

theory that remain relevant, and some that have been discarded.

• Criticism of Freud’s stages

– Scientifically untestable

• Failed to be supported

• Ignored all evidence disconfirming his ideas

– Positive side:

• Welcomed women into psychoanalysis

• Argued homosexuality was neither a sin nor a

perversion

Theories of Personality, cont’ LO14.6 Explain Jung’s notion of archetypes.

• Jungian theory

– Collective unconscious

• The universal memories, symbols, and experiences of

humankind, represented in the symbols, stories, and

images (archetypes) that occur across all cultures.

– Archetypes

• Universal, symbolic images that appear in myths, art,

stories, and dreams; to Jungians, they reflect the

collective unconscious.

• Two important archetypes are maleness and

femaleness, which Jung believed existed in both sexes.

Theories of Personality, cont’ LO14.7 Describe the basic principles of the object-relations school, and discuss how they

differ from Freud’s approach to personality.

• The Object-Relations School

– Emphasizes the importance of the infant’s first

two years of life and the baby’s formative

relationships, especially with their mother.

– Emphasizes children’s needs for a powerful

mother and to be in relationships.

Theories of Personality, cont’ LO14.8 Summarize three ways in which psychodynamic theories falter under scientific

scrutiny.

• Evaluating psychodynamic theories

– Three scientific failings

• Violating the principle of falsifiability

• Drawing universal principles from the experiences

of a few atypical patients

• Basing theories of personality development on the

retrospective accounts of adults

The Modern Study of Personality LO14.9 Outline some ways in which objective personality inventories differ from popular

personality tests used in business, dating, or other areas.

• The modern study of personality:

Popular personality tests

– Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

• Popular in business, at motivational seminars, and

with matchmaking services

• Assigns people to 1 of 16 different types,

depending on how the individual scores on the

dimensions of introverted or extroverted, logical or

intuitive

• Low reliability

The Modern Study of Personality LO14.9 Outline some ways in which objective personality inventories differ from popular

personality tests used in business, dating, or other areas.

• The modern study of personality:

Popular personality tests

– Objective tests (inventories)

• Standardized questionnaires requiring written

responses; they typically include scales on which

people are asked to rate themselves.

The Modern Study of Personality LO14.9 Outline some ways in which objective personality inventories differ from popular

personality tests used in business, dating, or other areas.

• Objective personality scales

– Answer a series of questions about self

• “I am easily embarrassed” True or False

• “I like to go to parties” True or False

– Assumes that you can accurately report

– No right or wrong answers

– From responses, develop an account of you

called a personality profile

The Modern Study of Personality, cont’ LO14.10 List the Big Five personality traits, and describe the characteristics of each one.

• Core personality traits

– Extroversion vs. introversion

– Neuroticism vs. emotional stability

– Agreeableness vs. antagonism

– Conscientiousness vs. impulsivity

– Openness to experience vs. resistance to new

experience

The Modern Study of Personality, cont’ LO14.10 List the Big Five personality traits, and describe the characteristics of each one.

• Consistency and change in personality

The Modern Study of Personality, cont’ LO14.10 List the Big Five personality traits, and describe the characteristics of each one.

• Genetic influences on personality

– Researchers measure genetic contributions to

personality in three ways:

• Studying personality traits in other species

• Studying the temperaments of human infants and

children

• Doing heritability studies of twins and adopted

individuals

The Modern Study of Personality, cont’ LO14.11 Define what temperaments are, and discuss how they relate to personality

traits.

• Heredity and temperament

– Temperaments

• Physiological dispositions to respond to the

environment in certain ways

• Present in infancy, assumed to be innate

– Includes

• Reactivity

• Soothability

• Positive and negative emotionality

The Modern Study of Personality, cont’ LO14.12 Explain how twin studies can be used to estimate the heritability of personality

traits.

• Heredity and traits

– Heritability: A statistical estimate of the

proportion of the total variance in some trait that

is attributable to genetic differences among

individuals within a group

– Heritability of personality traits is about 50%

• Within a group of people, about 50% of the variation

associated with a given trait is attributable to genetic

differences among individuals in the group.

– Genetic predisposition is not genetic inevitability.

The Modern Study of Personality, cont’ LO14.12 Explain how twin studies can be used to estimate the heritability of personality

traits.

• Environmental influences on

personality

– Relative influence of three aspects of the

environment

• Particular situations you find yourself in

• How your parents treat you

• Who your peers are

Environmental Influences on Personality LO14.13 Explain how reciprocal determinism and the nonshared environment contribute

to our understanding of how traits and behavior can be shaped by the environment.

• Reciprocal determinism

– Two-way interaction between aspects of the

environment and aspects of the individual in

the shaping of personality traits.

Environmental Influences on Personality LO14.13 Explain how reciprocal determinism and the nonshared environment contribute

to our understanding of how traits and behavior can be shaped by the environment.

• Non-shared environment

– Unique aspects of a person’s environment

and experience that are not shared with family

members.

Environmental Influences, cont’ LO14.14 Summarize three lines of evidence that suggest parental influence

over children’s personality development is limited.

• The power of parents

– The shared environment of the home has little

influence on personality traits.

• The non-shared environment is a more important

influence.

– Few parents have a single child-rearing style that

is consistent over time and that they use with all

their children.

– Even when parents try to be consistent, there

may be little relation between what they do and

how their children turn out.

Environmental Influences, cont’ LO14.15 Discuss some ways in which peers influence the development of

personality in children.

• The power of peers

– Peers play a tremendous role in shaping our

personality traits and behavior, causing us to

emphasize some attributes or abilities and

downplay others.

– Our temperaments and dispositions also

cause us to select particular peer groups (if

they are available) instead of others, and our

temperaments influence how we behave

within the group.

Cultural Influences on Personality LO14.16 Compare individualist and collectivist cultures, and describe some average

personality differences between them.

• Cultural influences on personality

– Culture

• A program of shared rules that govern the behavior

of members of a community or society.

• A set of values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by

most members of that community.

Cultural Influences on Personality LO14.16 Compare individualist and collectivist cultures, and describe some average

personality differences between them.

• Culture, values, and traits

– Individualist cultures

• Cultures in which the self is regarded as

autonomous, and individual goals and wishes are

prized above duty and relations with others.

– Collectivist cultures

• Cultures in which the self is regarded as

embedded in relationships, and harmony with

one’s group is prized above individual goals and

wishes.

Cultural Influences, cont’ LO14.17 Describe three traits which show considerable cultural variability.

• Aggressiveness

– Emphasis on aggressiveness and vigilance in

herding cultures, creates culture of honor.

– Used to explain increased likelihood of

fighting in the South and the West, versus the

North and Midwest.

Cultural Influences, cont’ LO14.17 Describe three traits which show considerable cultural variability.

• Aggression and cultures of honor

Cultural Influences, cont’ LO14.18 Evaluate some pros and cons of the cultural approach to understanding

personality.

• Evaluating cultural approaches

– Cultural psychologists face the problem of

how to describe cultural influences on

personality without oversimplifying or

stereotyping.

– People vary according to their temperaments,

beliefs, and learning histories, and this

variation occurs within every culture.

The Inner Experience LO14.19 Describe the core humanist ideas advanced by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers,

and Rollo May.

• The inner experience

– The sum total of our personality is based on

temperamental dispositions, our tough or

fortunate experiences, and how our parents

treated us.

The Inner Experience LO14.19 Describe the core humanist ideas advanced by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers,

and Rollo May.

• Abraham Maslow

– Humanistic psychology

• A psychological approach that emphasizes personal

growth, resilience, and the achievement of human

potential.

– Peak experiences

• Rare moments of rapture caused by the attainment of

excellence or the experience of beauty.

– Self-actualization

• Striving for a life that is meaningful, challenging, and

satisfying.

The Inner Experience LO14.19 Describe the core humanist ideas advanced by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers,

and Rollo May.

• Carl Rogers

– Unconditional positive regard

• Love or support given to another person with no

conditions attached.

– Conditional positive regard

• A situation in which the acceptance and love one

receives from significant others is contingent upon

one’s behavior.

The Inner Experience LO14.19 Describe the core humanist ideas advanced by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers,

and Rollo May.

• Rollo May

– Shared with humanists the belief in free will

and freedom of choice but also emphasized

loneliness, anxiety, and alienation.

– Existentialism

• A philosophical approach that emphasizes the

inevitable dilemmas and challenges of human

existence.

The Inner Experience, cont’ LO14.20 Discuss how the narrative approach to personality hinges on answering the

central question, “Who am I?”

• Narrative approaches

– Life narrative

• The story that each of us develops over time to

explain ourselves and make meaning of everything

that has happened to us.

• These stories are the essence of your personality,

capturing everything that has happened to you and

all the factors that affect your biology, psychology,

and relationships.

The Inner Experience, cont’ LO14.21 Summarize the shortcomings of the humanist approach to personality, and

identify some areas of substantial contribution.

• Evaluating humanist and narrative

approaches

– Hard to operationally define many of the

concepts

– Added balance to the study of personality

– Encouraged others to focus on “positive

psychology”

– Fostered new appreciation for resilience