Organizational Communication unit II two question

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Fundamentals of Organizational

Communication: Knowledge, Sensitivity, Skills, Values

9th Edition

Prepared by Pamela S. Shockley-Zalabak

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Fundamentals of Organizational

Communication Theoretical Perspectives for Organizational

Communication

Chapter Two

Prepared by Pamela S. Shockley-Zalabak

Objectives

 Describe the Functional tradition to

organizational communication

 Describe the Meaning-Centered approach to

organizational communication

 Describe Emerging Perspectives for

organizational communication

Objectives

 Distinguish among Functional, Meaning-

Centered, and Emerging Perspectives

 Understand the importance of meaning

generation for organizational communication

Objectives

 Identify how organizational communication

creates and shapes organizational events

 Develop analysis abilities using Functional,

Meaning-Centered, and Emerging

Perspectives

Objectives

 Practice analysis abilities

 View communication as the fundamental

organizational process

 Relate organizational communication to a

variety of value and ethical issues

Key terms

 Practical theory - a set of principles enabling

communicators to construct tentative models

and approaches relevant to broad ranges of

practical situations.

Key Terms

 Functional tradition - way of understanding

organizational communication by describing

what messages do and how they move

through organizations.

Functional Tradition

■ Describes…  How communication produces organizational outcomes

 Communication as a complex organizational process

that serves organizing, relationship, and change

functions

 The way messages move through organizations through

examining communication networks, channels, message

directions, communication load, and distortion.

 Communication transmits rules, regulations, and

information throughout the organization.

Functional Tradition External

Environment

External

Environment

External

Environment

Key Terms  Organizational communication system -

number of related units that operate together

to create and shape organizational events.

Information processing is the primary function

of the units.  What are the main parts of the system?

 What parts work together to create and shape

organizational events?

 How does communication contribute to keeping a system

dynamic?

 What role did communication play in organizations that

Key Terms

 Communication inputs - information in the

external environment that may influence the

decision making of the organization.

Key Terms

 Communication throughput - transforming

and changing of input information for internal

organizational use and the generation and

transmission of internal information

throughout the organization.

Key Terms  Communication output - messages to the

external environment from within the

organization.

 Open systems - organizations that continually

take in new information, transform that

information, and give information back to the

environment.

How to Create an Open System

 Listen to customer complaints

 New advertising and outreach methods

 New and multiple approaches to solving

issues

 Pay attention to sales or quality problems

 Leadership is able to effectively work with all

departments to solve issues

Key Terms

 Closed systems - organizations that lack

input communication, making it difficult to

make good decisions and stay current with

the needs of the environment.

 Equifinality – potential for the use of a variety

of approaches to reach system goals.

Key Terms  Message functions - what communication does or how it

contributes to the overall functioning of the organization.

 Organizing functions - messages that establish the rules

and regulations of a particular environment.

The adequacy and effectiveness of organizing messages

can be evaluated by how well organizational members

understand and perform tasks, how rules and regulations

are understood and followed, and how adequately daily

operations support organizational goals. In sum, the

organizing function of communication guides, directs, and

controls organizational activity.

Key Terms  Relationship functions - communication that helps

individuals define their roles and assess the

compatibility of individual and organizational

goals.

 The effectiveness of relationship messages is reflected

in individual satisfaction with work relationships,

productivity, employee turnover, overall support for

organizational practices, and a variety of other less

obvious ways.

Relationship Functions Relationship functions range from informal

conversations to visible symbols of status such as

large offices and reserved parking spaces, job

titles, awards, and promotions are other examples

of relationship communication that determine how

individuals identify with or relate to the

organization

Key Terms  Change functions - messages that help

organizations adapt what they do and how they

do it; viewed as essential to an open system.

 The effectiveness of change messages can be

determined by whether the organization gathers

information from the best available sources and acts on

that information with a timely, quality decision.

Change Functions  Change messages occur in

 Organizational problem solving,

 Individual decision making,

 Feedback from the environment

 Change communication is

 The processing of new ideas and information

 The altering of existing procedures and processes

 Essential for continual adaptation to the environment

and for meeting the complex needs of individuals

working together

Key Terms  Message structure - movement of organizing,

relationship, and change messages throughout

the organization and between the organization

and its external environment.

 Asks questions about

 Repetitive patterns of interactions among members of the

organization (networks),

 The use of a variety of channels for communication

 Message directions

 The amount of messages and the types of distortions that can be

expected to occur in organizational communication. In other words, the

structure of organizational communication can be understood in terms

of networks, channels, message directions, load, and distortion.

Organizing Messages

Rules and regulations

Organizational policies

Task definition

Task instruction

Task evaluation

Relationship Messages

Individual role definition

Individual/organizational goals

Status symbols

Integration among supervisor/employees, peers

Change Messages

Decision making

Market analysis

New idea processing

Environmental inputs

Employee suggestions

Problem solving

The Functional Tradition

Key Terms

 Networks - the formal and informal patterns

of communication that link organizational

members together.

Communication Networks

 Develop as a result of formal and informal social

contact

 Organization charts that map who reports to whom

and in what area of responsibility can be described

as blueprints for the way decisions are to be made,

the way conflicts are to be resolved, and which

groups are responsible for “networking” to reach

organizational goals

 The formal act of organizing creates organizational

communication networks or the formal

communication system

Informal Networks

Formal Networks

Interpersonal relationships that develop between

individuals in a work group

Interpersonal relationships that develop between

individuals and extend beyond the requirements

of the work group

Facilitated by technology

Communication Networks

Key Terms

 Channels - means for the transmission of

messages. Common means are face-to-face

interaction, group meetings, memos, letters,

electronic mail systems, computer-assisted

data transmission, and teleconferencing. The

choice and availability of communication

channels influence the way the organization

can and does operate

Channels

 Face to Face

 Letters

 Computer

 Group Meetings

 Presentations

 Websites

 Teleconference

 Memos

Channel Selection

 Selecting one channel over another can

communicate subtle and important attitudes about

both the message receiver and the message itself

 Research suggests that our attitude about the

message and our willingness to have contact with

the receiver significantly influence the channels we

use for communication

 Power and status, work requirements, technical

capability, and judgments about channel

effectiveness all contribute to the mode or modes

we use

Key Terms

 Direction - description of the movement of

messages in organizations based on

authority or position levels of message

senders and receivers; typically described as

downward, upward, and horizontal

communication

Directions

 Upward - message movement that begins with lower

organizational levels and is transmitted to higher

levels of authority

 Downward - message movement that begins with

higher organizational levels of authority and is

transmitted to lower levels of the organization

 Horizontal - horizontal communication moves

laterally across the organization among individuals

of approximately the same level and without distinct

reporting relationships to one another.

Key Terms  Load - the volume, rate, and complexity of

messages processed by an individual or the

organization as a whole

 Overload – when the volume, rate, and

complexity of messages exceed the system’s

capacity

 Overload contributes to stress and strains the

capacity of individuals to deal with information

 Technological advances may be causing

permanent overload

Key Terms

 Underload – the volume, rate, and complexity

of messages to an individual or organization

are lower than the capacity of the individual

or system

 Occurs when individuals engage in routine,

repetitive tasks that are no longer challenging.

 Leads to boredom and underutilization of human

potential

Key Terms  Distortion - anything that contributes to

alterations in meaning as messages move

through the organization

Distortion Distortino Disotrinot

Tornitsido

Tornadoes?

Key Terms

 Meaning-Centered approach - way of understanding organizational communication by discovering how organizational reality is generated through human interaction. The approach describes organizational communication as the process for generating shared realities that become organizing, decision making, influence, and culture.

Key Terms

 Organizing - bringing order out of chaos with

organizations as the products of the organizing

process; described as almost synonymous with

the communication process.

 Decision Making - process of choosing from

among numerous alternatives; the part of the

organizing process necessary for directing

behaviors and resources toward organizational

goals.

Assumptions of Meaning-Centered Approach

1. All ongoing human interaction is communication in one form or

another.

2. Organizations exist through human interaction; structures and

technologies result from the information to which individuals react.

3. Shared organizational realities reflect the collective interpretations

by organizational members of all organizational activities.

4. Organizing and decision making are essentially communication

phenomena.

5. Sensemaking combines action and interpretation

FIGURE 2.2

Key Assumption of the Meaning-Centered Approach

6. Identification, socialization, communication rules, and power all are

communication processes that reflect how organizational influence

occurs.

7. Organizing, decision making, and influence processes describe the

cultures of organizations by describing how organizations do things

and how they talk about how they do things.

8. Organizational cultures and subcultures reflect the shared realities in

the organization and how these realities create and shape

organizational events.

9. Communication climate is the subjective, evaluative reaction of

organization members to the organization’s communication events,

their reaction to organizational culture.

FIGURE 2.2

Key Assumption of the Meaning-Centered Approach

Assumptions of Meaning-Centered Approach

Karl Weick (1979)

 Organizations as such do not exist but rather

are in the process of existing through ongoing

human interaction.

 There is no such thing as an organization;

there is only the ongoing interaction among

human activities.

 Organizations do not exist outside of human

interaction

Karl Weick (1979)

 Focuses on the organizational environment

as the communication links and messages

that are the basis of human interaction

 Human reactions “enact” organizational

environments through information exchanges

and the active creation of meaning

 This creation or enactment of organizational

environments differs among individuals,

resulting in multiple and diverse meaning and

Organizational Rules are…

 rules and communication cycles which

continually process “equivocal” messages or

messages susceptible to varying

interpretations

 relatively stable procedures or known

processes that guide organizational behavior

 used as guidance for most inquiries

 formed when selective communication cycles

are successful, retention occurs and the

Steps to Making a Decision

 Step 1 - Choosing ways to approach the goal

 Step 2- Assigning individual responsibilities

within the project

 Step 3 – Deciding what resources the group

will need

 Decision making is the process of merging

each group member’s truths, backgrounds,

experiences, abilities, expectations and

premises into more general ones that most

Key Terms

 Influence - organizational and individual

attempts to persuade; frequently seen in

organizational identification, socialization,

communication rules, and power.

 Identity - Relative stable characteristics

including core beliefs, values, attitudes,

preferences, decisional premises, and more

which make up self.

Influence

 Creates and changes organizational events

 Contributing factors to organizing and

decision making include…

 Who we see as influential

 Ways people seek to influence others

 How people respond to influence

 Identification

 Socialization

 Communication rules

Key Terms  Identification - perception of a sense of

belonging usually associated with the belief

that individual and organizational goals are

compatible.

 Identification is dynamic

 Those who identify with the organization are more

likely to be positively influenced by and accept the

organization’s decisional premises or reasoning

 If the employee does not feel a sense of control in

their work setting, identification will not motivate

them to speak up when change is necessary

Key Terms

 Socialization - active organizational attempts

to help members learn appropriate behaviors,

norms, and values.

 Socialization relates to organizational

commitment, decision making, perceptions of

communications climate, and overall job

satisfaction

Key Terms

 Anticipatory socialization - pre-entry

information about the organization and

anticipated work role.

 Encounter socialization - early organizational

experiences reducing uncertainty about all

aspects of organizational life.

Key Terms

 Metamorphosis socialization - initial mastery

of basic skills and information and

adjustments to organizational life.

Assimilation  Myers and Oetzel (2003)

 Organizational assimilation processes occur across six

dimensions:

 Familiarity/friendships

 Acculturation

 Recognition

 Involvement

 Job competency

 Role negotiation

 Scott and Myers (2010)

 A complex membership negotiation [sought via information

seeking] along multiple dimensions within organizational social

and work systems

Key Terms

 Communication rules - general prescriptions

about appropriate communication behaviors

in particular settings. Thematic rules are

general prescriptions of behavior reflecting

the values and beliefs of the organization,

whereas tactical rules prescribe specific

behaviors as related to more general themes.

Communication Rules…

 …operate to influence behavior

 …are specific enough to be followed

 …occur in particular contexts

 …informal norms about what type of

communication is desirable in a particular

organization

Communication Rules…  Thematic or Tactical

 Thematic – general prescriptions of behavior

reflecting the values and beliefs of the

organization

 Tactical – prescribe specific behaviors as related

to more general themes and may evolve from one

general thematic rule

 Compliance with thematic and tactical rules

indicates that an individual has received

socializing information and identifies with the

Key Terms  Structuration - production and reproduction of social

systems via the application of generative rules and

resources in interaction.

 Structurational theory – rules not only influence

behavior but also are influenced by members’

conceptions of appropriate behaviors

 Rules and resources are both the medium and

outcome of interaction

 Members use rules and resources to maintain or

rise in the hierarchy therefore structuration produces

the status system(Poole & McPhee 1983)

Key Terms

 Power - attempts to influence another

person’s behavior to produce desired

outcomes. The process occurs through

communication and is related to resources,

dependencies, and alternatives.

Power and Resources

 Resources – something owned or controlled

by an individual, group, or organization.

Owning or controlling resources (especially

scarce, unique or highly critical resources)

allows individuals or organizations to

influence interactions with others

Power is…

 …not a commodity

 …an influence process that permits all

involved to gain more power, lose more

power, or share power.

Key Terms

 Culture - unique sense of the place that organizations

generate through ways of doing and ways of

communicating about the organization; reflects the shared

realities and shared practices in the organization and how

they create and shape organizational events.

 Organizing, decision making, and influence processes,

when taken together, help us describe the culture of

organizations by describing how organizations do things

and how they talk about how they do things

 Words, actions, artifacts, routine practices, and texts are

the regular communication interactions among

organizational members that generate uniqueness or

culture

Metaphors  When culture is used as a metaphor for organizational

communication, we attempt to understand

communication by understanding

 The uniqueness or shared realities

 How organizations use language, symbols, jargon and

specialized vocabulary

 Behaviors, rituals and rites of organizational life

 General standards or values of the organization

 How communication activities generate uniqueness or

symbolic common ground

 How cultural information can be manipulated, shared

Key Terms

 Communication climate - reaction to the

organization’s culture; consists of collective

beliefs, expectations, and values regarding

communication that are generated as

organizational members continually evaluate

their interactions with others.

21st Century Emerging Perspectives

 Communication constitutes organizations

(CCO)

 Postmoderism

 Critical Theory

 Feminist, race, and class theory

Key Terms

 Constitutive processes - communication seen

as a process of meaning development and

social production of perceptions, identities,

social structures, and affective responses.

Stan Deetz (1992)  Communication cannot be reduced to an informational

issue where meanings are assumed to be already existing,

but must be seen as a process of meaning development

and social production of perceptions, identities, social

structures, and affective responses.”

 move beyond Functional concerns for message production

and transfer and the Meaning-Centered issues of “realities”

and cultures to a fundamental view of communication that

constitutes or brings about self and social environments.

 Communication is not synonymous with organizing,

decision making, and influence but is better understood as

the process that literally produces organizing, decision

making, and influence.

Key Terms

 Communication Constitutes Organization

(CCO)

 Communication processes or flows which

generate and sustain organizations through

balances between agency and structure.

CCO

 discusses how organizations develop

identities, exercise power and influence, and

sustain themselves

 attempts to understand the interactions and

balances among agency (communicative

actions) and broad structures.

 addresses how agency and structures are

mutually constitutive, that is, how they

construct each other.

James Taylor and Elizabeth Van

Every (2011) “Thirdness”

Actions and events of

the organization

All of the people (agents)

engaging in these activities

An abstract representation of what an

organization is about and how its “authority”

influences present and future actions

Key Terms

 Postmodernism - theoretical perspectives

representing an alienation from the past,

skepticism about authority structures,

ambiguity of meanings, and mass culture.

 Postmodern organizational communication

seeks to understand how multiple meanings

and multiple interpretations of organizational

events influence multiple and diverse

behaviors.

Key Terms

 Deconstruction - refers to the examination of

taken-for-granted assumptions, the

examination of the myths we utilize to explain

how things are the way they are, and the

uncovering of the interests involved in

socially constructed meanings.

Key Terms

 Critical Theory - focuses attention to studies of power and

abuses of power through communication and organization.

 “The central goal of critical theory in organizational

communication studies has been to create a society and

workplaces that are free from domination and where all

members can contribute equally to produce systems that meet

human needs and lead to the progressive development of all”

(Deetz 2001, p. 26).

 “One of the principal tenets of the critical studies approach is

that organizations are not simply neutral sites of meaning

formation; rather, they are produced and reproduced in the

context of struggles between competing interest groups and

systems of representation” (Mumby 1993, p. 21).

Critical Theory Seeks to…

 …understand power structures and identify interests

served by various types and alignments of power and

control.

 …uncover power abuses in order to contribute to more

fulfilling organizations and entire societies

 …support both analysis and action, whether stimulating

resistance, promoting change, or focusing on

emancipating those abused by power structures

Key Terms

 Hegemony - process of control based on a

dominant group leading others to believe

their subordination is the norm.

 Power is hidden from ready observation and

accepted as normal if not desirable

 Certain people in organizations are

oppressed even when they do not recognize

their experience as such

 Power is exercised through communication, and power

influences communication rules and structures

 Organizational power controls as domination based on

getting people to organize their behavior around

particular rule systems. Legitimate control emerges

through stories, myths, rituals, and a variety of other

symbolic forms. These forms in turn become the rules

that prescribe appropriate behavior. This “legitimate” yet

hidden exercise of power can contribute to the

suspension of critical thinking. (Mumby 1987).

CPomomuwniecartion

Key Terms

 Feminist, Race, Class Theories - focus on the

marginalization and domination of women

and people of color in the workplace and

describe how communication of social class

influences identity and contributes to privilege

and marginalization. These theories focus on

valuing of diverse voices in all organizational

processes.

Key Terms

 Feminist Theory - focuses on the

marginalization and domination of women in

the workplace and the devaluing of women’s

voices in all organizational processes.

Although diverse in perspective and

approaches, feminist theory generally attempts

to move our society beyond patriarchal forms

and social practices by critiquing power

relationships that devalue women

Judi Marshall (1993)

The Male Principle vs. The Female Principle

Self-assertion

Separation

Independence

Control

Competition

Focused perception

Rationality

Analysis

Clarity

Discrimination

Activity

Interdependence

Cooperation

Receptivity

Merging

Acceptance

Awareness of patterns

Awareness of wholeness

Synthesizing

Females in organizations adapt to male norms while being

evaluated against female stereotypes. “The male domination of

cultures goes largely unrecognized in organizational life and in

mainstream organizational theory.”

Patrice Buzzanell (1994) Feminist Organizational Communication

 The moral commitment to investigate the

subordinated, to focus on gendered interactions in

ordinary lives, and to explore the standpoints of

women who have been rendered invisible by their

absence in theory and research.”

 Gender is socially constructed and enacted in

organizations, with messages, structures, and

practices becoming the contexts for gender

construction and negotiation. Organizational

communication is therefore the focal process for this

construction and negotiation.

Karen Ashcraft and Brenda Allen (2003) Racial Bias in Organizations

 Not only are organizations fundamentally gendered but

also fundamentally raced.

 Many of the assumptions in organizations about the

contributions of women apply to people of color.

 Stereotypical expectations related to race, while differing

by race, are evidenced in all types of organizational

settings.  Notions exist which suggest that discrimination and marginalization will

be eliminated when more people of color and women are in more

diverse organizational positions.

 To date facts simply do not support this perspective, making gender and

race of ongoing concern for individuals as well as organizational

excellence.

Karen Ashcraft & Brenda Allen (2011), Karen Lucas (2011)

Social Class Bias in Organizations

 Social class is constructed through communication.

Allen (2011) illustrates how occupational differences

create class:  hourly versus salaried work

 educational requirements for promotional mobility

 service versus line responsibilities

 private office versus open space or no assigned space work locations; and numerous other

distinctions. In a specific example of understanding mobility aspirations and social class,

 Karen Lucas (2011) “…Emotionally charged feelings of

dislocation arise when people from blue-collar, working

class backgrounds enter the world of white-collar, idle to

upper class work. In contrast to all they have gained by

upward social mobility, many feel a deep sense of loss.”

(p. 348)

Connie Bullis (1993)

Feminist Theory Alternative Perspective

 Described why it is important to consider how

socialization practices can construct women as

marginalized others.

 Challenged us to think about voices marked as

outsiders, unsocialized, uncommitted, disloyal, absentee,

unemployable, or dropouts.

Key Terms

 Race Theory - race perspectives focus on

the domination of those not of a majority

race and the uncovering of practices which

both silence and devalue minority voices

Key Terms

 Institution(s)- a high prestige organization, process, practice or groupings of similar organizations, providing our environments, relatively stable traditions, practices, standards, customs, rules and laws.  Question: If institutions are more permanent and established

than individual organizations, the question becomes: how does an organization or groups of organizations, processes, or practices become institutionalized?

Institutionalization

 Involves: Innovation, habitualization, objectification, and

sedimentation.

 Organizational communication is fundamental in this

description

 Begins when an innovation or new understanding enters a

field of practice, organization, or related group of

organizations.

Pamela Tolbert and Lynne Zucker (1996),

Tim Kuhn (2005)

Institutionalization  Habitualization

 In order for the innovation to be sustained, the habitualization phase must

occur, whereby the innovation becomes part of patterned approaches to

problem solving usually used by a limited set of individuals who have contact

with each other across organizations

 Objectification

 Characterized by social consensus about the value of the innovation, often

based on limited knowledge about the specifics of the innovation but

agreement that based on convincing arguments of merit the innovation has

significant potential.

 Sedimentation

 Characterized by social consensus about the value of the innovation, often

based on limited knowledge about the specifics of the innovation but

agreement that based on convincing arguments of merit the innovation has

significant potential.

Lammers and Barbour

Institutions  …bring us observable routines that go across many settings or

organizations

 …manifest beliefs, which influence decisions and choices that

individuals make

 …are established through associations among people and are

characterized by low rates of change with fixed and enduring

qualities, often formalized with specific rules for conduct and specific

prescriptions for rational purpose and how to get things done

 …influence concepts of professions and professional identity

Key Terms

 Global cultures – regional or country-specific societal values and practices including core dimensions such as uncertainty avoidance, power distance, institutional collectivism, in- group collectivism, gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, future orientation, performance orientation, and humane orientation.

House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, Gupta (2004)

Participants were asked to describe varying values and

practices related to functioning in a world of global

collaborations

 10 year study

 62 societies

 170 social scientists and management scholars from

around the world

 17,300 participants

 951 organizations

 Conclusion: 9 core dimensions of global cultures

9 Core Dimensions of Global Cultures

 Uncertainty avoidance

 Power distance

 Institutional collectivism

 In-group collectivism

 Gender Egalitarianism

 Assertiveness

 Future Orientation

 Performance Orientation

 Humane Orientation

Technology and Organizational Communication

Emerging communications technologies influence

 Organizational structure

 Processing of information

 Newcomer socialization

 Interactions among work groups

 Interactions with customers

 The speed of work

 Information security

 Individual privacy

 Networks for innovation

 Problem solving

 Decision making

 A host of other organizational experiences.

Technology and Organizational Communication

 Access to and control of technology are powerful communication influences changing the way work is performed, how people relate to each other, how power is exercised, and a host of organizational participation practices.

 It is important to understand that the emergence of these technologies changes fundamental assumptions in all of the theoretical perspectives we discussed

Discussion Question #1

 Which of the three approaches (Functional,

Meaning-Centered, or Emerging

Perspectives) to organizational

communication do you think better describes

organizations? Why?

Discussion Question #2

 Describe a circumstance you have observed

when organizational communication

influenced effectiveness.

Discussion Question #3

 Describe an organization that you know well.

Identify message functions and the structure

of that organization.

Discussion Question #4

 Describe the culture of the same

organization.

Discussion Question #5

 Debate whether or not we should view

communication as the fundamental

organizational process.

The Functional Tradition 1. How effective are organizing, relationship, and change messages?

2. What types of formal and informal communication networks exist? What network roles can you

identify? Are they adequate?

3. Is channel use appropriate for effective communication?

4. Is the load on the communication system part of the problem?

5. What types of communication distortion exist?

6. Does the organization get good input communication from its environment? How effective is

throughput and output communication? Is the system open or closed?

The Meaning-Centered Approach 1. Do organizing activities help reduce message equivocality?

2. How effective is decision-making communication?

3. Do most organizational members identify with the organization? How do you know?

4. What attempts are made at organizational socialization? Are they appropriate and effective?

5. How does power relate to the problem?

6. Do organizational stories, rituals, and events provide important information?

7. What type of culture exists? Is it effective? How do you know?

8. How can the communication climate be characterized? Is that appropriate? What should

change?

Emerging Perspectives 1. Describe how communication constitutes an organization.

2. What are the hidden power relationships?

3. Are women and people of color marginalized?

4. How are social classes represented?

5. Describe abuses of power

6. Do stories, rituals, and events sustain hierarchical and patriarchal systems?

7. Is decision making characterized by domination or codetermination? How can change occur?

8. How is rationality conceptualized and presented?

9. How do institutions influence particular organizations?

10. How do global cultural differences influence organizational collaborations?

11. Describe how technology influences issues of power, marginalization, culture, and

participation in decision making

Figure 2.3

Analyzing Organizational Problems