For A- plus Writer

Learning Objectives

What We Will Be Investigating: • Understand the different approaches to conceptualizing leadership. • Recognize the limitations to the trait-based model of leadership. • Understand the importance of communication competencies in the development and expression

of effective organizational leadership. • Differentiate between the use of formal and informal communication channels by leaders and

the differences between formal and informal organizational leadership. • Differentiate between horizontal and vertical communication channels in organizations. • Recognize how leaders can enhance the effective use of communication channels in organizations. • Understand the ways that leaders can effectively build an overlap between formal and informal

channels of communication in organizations. • Learn how to use the grapevine to help achieve organizational goals. • Recognize the differences between and interdependence between management and leadership

functions in organizations. • Learn how leaders can build their credibility as communicators. • Understand how leaders can use verbal and nonverbal communication to increase immediacy

in communication. • Compare and contrast the relative strengths and weaknesses of different models of leadership.

Chapter 7

Effective Organizational Leadership

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CHAPTER 7Introduction

The art of communication is

the language of leadership

—James Humes

Chapter Outline

7.1 Leadership And Communication Natural-Born Leaders? The Leadership Hierarchy Vertical Communication Channels Horizontal Communication Channels

7.2 Formal and Informal Leadership The Grapevine Conflicting Messages

7.3 Management versus Leadership

7.4 Leadership and Credibility Expertise Trustworthiness Charisma

7.5 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication and Leadership

7.6 Key Models of Leadership The Theory X and Theory Y Models of Leadership The Leadership Styles Model The Situational Model of Leadership The Task and Relationship Models of Leadership Therapeutic Communication and Leadership

Introduction Effective leadership is widely recognized as a critical factor in successful organizations, especially for guiding the accomplishment of challenging organizational tasks in large and complex organizations. However, it is difficult for most people to specify exactly what comprises strong and effective leadership. The popular trait-based model of leadership suggests, sometimes rather simplistically, that certain traits lead to effective leadership. For example, the physical features approach to the trait-based conceptualization suggests that physical stature, attractive facial features, and a strong speaking voice are some of the key attributes of effective leadership. You may have even heard people say things like “that person looks like a leader.”

Yet, possession of attractive physical attributes does not necessarily lead to effective leader- ship. There are plenty of attractive people who do not assume major leadership roles and just as many less attractive individuals who become great leaders. For example, you may recall Ross Perot, the influential Texas billionaire, CEO of Electronic Data Systems (EDS) and later Perot Systems, who made a bid for the U.S. presidency in 1992 and 1996. His strong record of corporate and public leadership was certainly not a result of his impressive physical appear- ance or melodious speaking voice. He was a small, unimposing man, with big ears, a nasal voice, and a rather frenetic style of communication in which he waved his arms around wildly when he got excited. Yet he was able to overcome his physical limitations to exert influential leadership through his persuasive communication of ideas. Perot was a master at captivating audiences by telling stories to illustrate his ideas and to influence others.

The cognitive features approach to leadership is another perspective derived from the trait-based conceptualization of leadership that suggests that intellectual characteristics,

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 Leadership and Communication

such as individual knowledge, creativity, and intuition, contribute to effective leadership. Certainly, leaders like Ross Perot used their expertise and knowledge to become strong leaders. However, although cognitive strengths are likely helpful to leaders, many bril- liant individuals never become strong leaders.

Still another variation of the trait model of leadership focuses on personality factors that contribute to leadership. This approach suggests that people with outgoing, friendly, and engaging personalities are likely to become leaders. Indeed, our personalities are strong indicators of the ways we are likely to communicate. However, there is not one set person- ality or communication approach that leads to effective leadership.

The best leaders adapt their communication to meet the unique demands of different orga- nizational situations, demonstrating strategic and adaptive communication competencies. For example, in an emergency like an earthquake or a fire, a good leader knows how to take charge and help lead followers to safety. On the other hand, when responding to a worker’s individual problems, such as health issues or family problems, a good leader knows it is best to back off and not impose a solution to the personal problem. In this case, it is best to support the worker but allow that person to solve his or her own problems.

In this book, we take a communication competencies conceptualization of leadership that focuses on the abilities of organizational participants to communicate with others in ways that inspire confidence and encourage cooperation as the essence of effective lead- ership. From this conceptualization, strong leadership is based on the exertion of social influence within organizational life. Strategic communication involves the use of effective interpersonal, group, and intercultural communication activities. Recall our discussions in earlier chapters of this book about interpersonal communication, group communica- tion, and intercultural communication where we examined the importance of developing strategic communication skills and competencies. The best leaders are adept at building strong cooperative interpersonal relationships, coordinating the efforts of key groups, and communicating effectively across cultures.

In this chapter we will highlight the unique communication competencies and skills needed for effective leadership in a wide range of different situations. We will explore differences between management and leadership skills and describe key models for lead- ership emergence and strategy, including the importance of developing situational leader- ship skills for meeting the unique and changing demands of organizational life. We will examine formal and informal leadership as well as strategies for helping leaders coordi- nate formal and informal communication systems, including responding to rumors and the grapevine. The chapter closes with a case study that illustrates strategies for leader- ship development and leader adaptation in modern organizations.

7.1 Leadership and Communication

There is no one way to demonstrate strong leadership communication skills. Effec-tive leadership communication takes many forms, especially when leadership is exerted in different organizational situations as well as with different organizational participants. Strategic communicators adapt their communication behaviors to match the demands of different social situations and relational partners. Similarly, the best

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 Leadership and Communication

leaders are able to adapt their communication strategies to match the unique demands of the individuals they are interacting with, as well as the distinct situational factors they encounter in organizational life. A variety of important situational factors are of concern to leaders, including

• the nature of the organizational issues that leaders are helping to address, • the background factors concerning how these issues have been addressed in the past, • the different constituent groups affected by the issues, • the urgency in addressing these issues, and • the times and places where the issues occur.

Later in this chapter we will examine a situational model of leadership that suggests dif- ferent strategies for responding to unique situational and personnel factors. For now let’s turn our attention to the notion of natural-born leaders.

Natural-Born Leaders?

You have probably heard people described as natural-born leaders. This statement raises the “nature versus nurture” argument. Are individ- uals genetically coded to become great leaders? Although having certain innate faculties, such as intelligence, can help people become leaders, few individuals are born to be good leaders. Good leadership skills are learned over time with the development of strategic communication com- petencies. The phrase natural-born leader typically acknowledges those individuals who are able to demonstrate the kinds of communication skills that are most influential in encouraging others to cooperate. Some people have well-developed communication skills and competencies. These individuals are most likely to become strong lead- ers. However, many others who have leadership potential may need to be coached to develop the strategic communication competencies needed to become effective leaders.

The Leadership Hierarchy

Modern organizations depend on effective leadership to provide organizational members with instructions about how to accomplish tasks. Good leaders advise others about how to solve problems. They also help establish a clear sense of direction for how their orga- nizations address current and future challenges. Formal organizational leadership roles, such as the positions occupied by company CEOs, presidents, vice presidents, manag- ers, and supervisors, are among the most visible and important roles performed by orga- nizational participants. These roles are located at the top of organizational hierarchies,

Do you believe that certain people are natural-born leaders? Why or why not?

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 Leadership and Communication

directing the activities of those listed below them on an organizational chart that specifies the formal positions held by organization members. Figure 7.1 presents a sample organi- zational chart, which you will recognize from our discussion in Chapter 1.

Most organizations, especially large ones, are designed hierarchically, similar to the lev- els and positions designated in the sample organizational chart presented in Figure 7.1. In this organizational chart, formal authority, power, and decision making flow down from the top levels of the organization to the lower levels. Formal authority is wielded from supervisors through their strategic use of organizational communication to direct the activities of subordinates down the hierarchical chain of command. This communica- tion of formal authority typically flows from top executives (such as company presidents) to their direct subordinates (second-level executives, such as vice presidents), and then from these executives to mid-level managers, and further on down the line, ultimately ending at the bottom of the organizational hierarchy with the most basic hourly workers

CEO J. Smith

Exec. Secretary

Vice President of Marketing

J. Gomez

Vice President of Sales T. Lee

Vice President of Production

P. Connors

Public & Community

Relations Department

Product & Services

Marketing Department Manager

Manager

Manager

Manager

Manager

Manager

Manager

Manager

W. Allen P. Lloyd

L. Jiminez

K. Poole

T. Washington

Figure 7.1: A Sample Organizational Chart

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.1 Leadership and Communication

in corporations. The larger and more complex the organization is, the more levels of hier- archy are likely to be populated by supervisors who exert control over their subordinates through the use of organizational communication. Communication is the primary tool for exerting authority and control down the organizational hierarchy, primarily through the use of spoken and written messages.

Vertical Communication Channels

Span of control refers to the range of subordinates who supervisors are charged to direct within their organizations. Each supervisor has his or her own unique span of control so that, ideally, every worker in an organization has a direct supervisor to answer to. As we discussed in Chapter 1, this flow of formal authority down the organization’s hierarchy is accomplished through the strategic use of formal organizational communication. The primary flow of formal organizational communication used by supervisors is described as downward communication. Supervisors use downward communication to provide their subordinates with job-related information and feedback to direct the job-related activities of these subordinates. Downward communication is described as a vertical channel of communication in organizations since it moves up and down the organizational hierarchy.

Although downward communication is typically the most frequently used formal channel of communication in organizations, other forms of formal communication per- form important roles for leaders and their organizations. As we discussed in Chapter 1, another form of vertical organizational communication is upward communication, which flows from subordinates to their supervisors. Although upward communication is not used as frequently as downward communication in most organizations, it performs important functions. Upward communication can provide leaders with feedback about how well their downward communication is understood by subordinates. Upward com- munication also provides leaders with information about what is going on at the opera- tional levels of organizing. Leaders can’t be everywhere and often don’t know how well organizational activities are working. Upward communication, especially if it is honest and descriptive, can alert leaders to problems that may be brewing in the organization or about flaws in the plans and directions that have been provided to workers. Leaders desperately need feedback from their subordinates so they can help address problems before the problems grow and get out of hand. Upward communication has the potential to be an important source of information for directing organizational problem solving, renewal, and development.

Unfortunately, workers are not always motivated to provide their bosses with full and honest feedback about organizational problems. Workers may fear that by reporting problems to their bosses, their bosses may assume that the workers are the cause of the problems identified. Because of this, there is a tendency for subordinates to pro- vide their bosses only with positive information about organizational activities. As we mentioned in Chapter 1, this tendency to distort upward communication to present a version of reality that looks better than the actual organizational situation is referred to as the mum effect. Leaders need to let their workers know that they want honest feedback about organizational problems, that they will not penalize them for providing accurate information, and, in fact, that they will reward workers for providing valuable information about organizational problems to overcome the communication distortions

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 Formal and Informal Leadership

encouraged by the mum effect. Leaders who encourage upward communication can build strong cooperative relationships with workers, which can be helpful when leaders need to ask workers to help them, work extra hours, or contribute to the organization in different ways.

Horizontal Communication Channels

As we discussed in Chapter 1, still another important formal channel of organizational communication is the horizontal channel of communication, which involves interactions between organizational participants holding formal positions at the same levels of orga- nizational hierarchies. Horizontal communication is important for sharing information, coordinating activities, and solving problems. For example, members of a work team, a decision-making board, or even a secretarial pool need to communicate with one another (horizontally) to coordinate the accomplishment of tasks. These individuals, who often perform similar jobs, often provide one another with insights into how to overcome common problems and get things done. They can also provide one another with needed peer support concerning shared issues, experiences, and concerns, Too often, horizontal communication is underappreciated in organizational life and is discouraged by lead- ers who assume the interaction between coworkers may distract them from their work. Good leaders should encourage their subordinates to use horizontal communication with coworkers so they can help one another, work together to solve problems, and provide needed social support.

7.2 Formal and Informal Leadership

Classical organizational theorist Max Weber (1947) described organizations as rule-governed bureaucracies that are kept on track by strong hierarchical leaders who use downward communication to establish and enforce formal rules, wielding strict authority over workers. The model of bureaucracy is very logical, highly structured, and carefully planned to accomplish organizational goals in an orderly manner. However, in actual practice, the formal organization described by the bureaucratic model (and illustrated by the organizational chart) typically competes with an informal organization that does not necessarily follow the organizational chart. While the organizational chart identifies the formal leaders in organizations—those who officially hold leadership positions, such as the president, CEO, and manager—there are also informal leaders who emerge in orga- nizations. These informal leaders are not assigned to leadership positions in the way that formal leaders are appointed to their jobs. Rather, informal leaders develop their influence over others based on the establishment of cooperative interpersonal relationships with other organizational participants. As we will see in this chapter, a wide range of both for- mal and informal leadership activities occur in modern organizational life.

Although it is tempting to assume that all supervisors in organizations are good leaders since they are charged with formal power and authority, many individuals placed in for- mal leadership roles do not use communication effectively enough to demonstrate strong leadership. In cases where formal leaders communicate in ways that inspire their subor- dinates to follow their directions and coordinate activities with them, the term leadership

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 Formal and Informal Leadership

clearly applies. However, in many organizations, the strongest examples of leadership may not come from the top of the hierarchy (from desig- nated bosses to subordinates down the hierar- chy) but from informal leaders who inspire and influence the behaviors of others. Thus, the qual- ity of leadership is not determined just by title or formal position within organizations. It is deter- mined by the strategic use of communication to influence others.

Often, informal leaders have the ability to com- municate with a variety of organizational par- ticipants, have information they are willing to share with others, and can help solve problems and accomplish organizational tasks. There is an interesting relationship between formal and informal leaders. The better formal leaders are at providing their subordinates with relevant infor- mation and support, the less need there is for informal leaders. However, when formal leaders do not provide their workers with the informa- tion they need, workers need to find other sources of information to accomplish their jobs and to satisfy their needs for information. Informal lead- ers often develop as the alternative source of this organizational information.

The Grapevine

Organizational participants need job-related information such as what their supervisors expect of them, what issues are facing them and other organizational participants, and how to solve organizational problems. This is the kind of information that good formal leaders should be providing to their subordinates. Organizational participants are also interested in acquiring a wide range of non-job-related organizational information, such as which organization members are dating other members, which organizational partici- pants are having health problems and what these health problems are, which individuals are feuding with each other and what they are feuding about, as well as which individuals are getting promoted and which may be getting demoted or fired. Formal leaders are not usually a good source for providing organizational participants with this kind of informa- tion. It is this informal, non-job-related information that therefore keeps most informal leaders in their positions of informal authority.

Informal leaders often help establish informal lines of communication to provide non- job-related information. As noted in Chapter 1, this is something I like to refer to as “juicy information.” These informal lines of communication that carry juicy information to eager organization members are often referred to as grapevines. Sometimes grapevines are considered to be rumor mills, but they serve a legitimate function in organizational life. The less relevant information is available to organizational participants through the

Why is it so important for CEOs like former Apple CEO Steve Jobs to use communication effectively? What is the role of an informal leader in an organi- zation where a CEO does not do so?

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.2 Formal and Informal Leadership

formal channels of organizational communication, the more the grapevine develops as an alternative source of information. The quality of the information available to organization members via the grapevine is directly related to the quality of the information provided by informal leaders. When informal leaders do not have access to accurate information, the grapevine can disseminate erroneous information to others. However, when informal leaders have access to accurate information, the grapevine can be an effective channel for sharing it with other organizational participants.

Interestingly, informal channels of communication like the grapevine are often more rapid, complete, and distortion-free vehicles for distributing information than are formal chan- nels of communication. This has to do with problems involving formal communication between supervisors and subordinates. In many instances of downward communication, information is not presented clearly. Significant differences often exist between supervisors and their subordinates that can make communication difficult, such as the use of language by supervisors that subordinates may not be familiar with. There is also often limited opportunity for feedback and clarification in formal communication between supervisors and subordinates, making clarification of misunderstood information unlikely.

For example, imagine a supervisor tells an employee to “fix that memo right away” in a brusque manner. The employee is likely to say, “Yes, I will,” even if he or she does not understand exactly what is wrong with the memo or how to fix it. The employee may be too intimidated to ask the supervisor for clarification, leading to misunderstandings. However, with the grapevine, there is often active discussion about issues raised, with ample opportunities for feedback. In addition, information exchanged over the grape- vine is often of greater interest to organizational participants than the formal message exchanges between supervisors and employees, so there is typically more attention paid to communication via the grapevine than to communication via formal channels.

It is therefore wise for formal leaders of organizations to recognize the important com- munication functions performed by the grapevine. Too often, formal leaders are either oblivious to the role of the grapevine in their organizations or they waste time and energy trying to uproot it. Rather than trying to get rid of the grapevine—a near impossible task—formal leaders are better off keeping tabs on the information being spread via the grapevine and trying to feed informal leaders with information to disseminate over it. The best formal leaders identify and connect with informal leaders, providing them with relevant information to promote a productive overlap between the organization’s formal and informal communication systems. In the best organizations, messages disseminated via the formal and informal systems overlap and reinforce one another.

Conflicting Messages

If workers are posed with conflicting messages conveyed via the formal and informal communication systems, they must work to determine which messages to believe. Most times, they will believe the messages conveyed via the informal system. Why is this so?

• Informal messages are typically communicated multiple times over a variety of sources, especially when the messages are “juicy” and capture member interest. Most formal message systems are conveyed only by the supervisor, with limited reinforcement.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.3 Management versus Leadership

• Informal messages are likely to be told in great detail via the grapevine, and are often imbedded in stories. Formal messages are generally lean and convey only the facts.

• The individuals who convey messages via the grapevine are often more trusted sources of information than formal leaders, who workers may distrust.

Thus, if formal leaders want workers to receive, understand, and believe messages, con- veying those messages to workers over both the formal and information organizational communication systems is a good idea.

7.3 Management versus Leadership

Earlier in this chapter we briefly described Max Weber’s bureaucratic model of for-mal organizations in which supervisors wield tight control over workers. In this model, the supervisors are designated as the leaders. However, it may be more accurate to describe many of these supervisors as managers rather than as leaders. True leaders inspire workers, provide a vision for the organization, and encourage voluntary coopera- tion. Managers, on the other hand, enforce rules and regulations, often forcing workers to comply with their orders and authority. Although managers are needed to maintain stability and structure in organizational life, they are not always inspiring to their subordinates. In fact, workers are often not appreciative of man- agers, despite the formal trappings of titles and formal authority that these managers possess. Yet sometimes managers do demonstrate leadership by inspiring trust, encouraging cooperation, and helping to solve problems by the ways they com- municate with their subordinates.

In many organizations, managers outnumber leaders. Well-known leadership theorist War- ren Bennis (1976) suggests that there is a dearth of real leadership in modern organizational life. He argues that too many formal leaders assume managerial roles with a greater focus on enforc- ing rules in organizations than on promoting creative decision making and problem solving. Bennis believes there is a dire need to develop more leaders to balance the need for both leader- ship and managerial roles in organizational life. He argues that good leaders should be taught to go beyond being just a manager by employing the following tactics:

• Developing vision and assertiveness to make decisive organizational decisions • Seeing the big picture in organizational situations rather than focusing on the details • Viewing situations within the context of the unique organizational history and goals • Having the courage to make difficult decisions and take calculated risks

How important is it that current Hewlett-Packard CEO (and former eBay CEO) Meg Whitman be a leader rather than just a manager?

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Leadership and Credibility

• Gathering relevant information and considering multiple messages • Recognizing the importance of organizational culture in shaping cooperation • Feeling comfortable with handling the stresses of leadership

True leadership therefore encompasses more than just wielding authority. It involves using strategic communication to establish relationships that encourage others to work collab- oratively to address problems.

7.4 Leadership and Credibility

True leaders establish credibility with their followers. Individuals who are perceived as being credible are those organizational members who are most likely to become true leaders. Credibility is established through the communication of three primary interre- lated personal characteristics: expertise, trustworthiness, and charisma. Although all leaders may not have established all three of these personal characteristics equally well, they are likely to have established a combination of strengths in these three personal traits through their communication with other organizational participants.

Expertise

Credible leaders demonstrate their expertise by showing that they know what they are doing, that they have specialized and relevant knowledge, and that they can solve challenging problems in different organizational situations. Organi- zational participants are more willing to follow those individuals who demonstrate expertise than those who are not. Think about people with whom you work in different organizations. Can you identify those individuals who demonstrate the greatest relevant expertise? If so, these are the individuals you are likely to go to for advice and counsel when you encounter difficult situations.

Expertise can be communicated in various ways. Demonstrating the ability to correctly use spe- cialized language (such as professional jargon) often helps to indicate expertise. But to really establish expertise, leaders need to do more than just “talk the talk,” they also need to “walk the walk.” That is, they need to show others that they can help get things done by solving complex problems. Sometimes they can do this by using their expertise to influence the behaviors of oth- ers. Sometimes they can guide the accomplish- ment of tasks, such as showing others how to operate needed equipment. Other times they are

Credibility is established through the communication of three primary inter- related personal characteristics: exper- tise, trustworthiness, and charisma. Does Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg possess these characteristics?

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Leadership and Credibility

able to identify critical issues in solving complex problems. A good example comes from the television show House, where Dr. House demonstrates his expertise in each episode by diagnosing complex health problems and identifying life-saving intervention strate- gies. The more challenging and complex the issues faced in organizational life, the more important it is for leaders to demonstrate the requisite expertise for addressing these issues effectively.

Trustworthiness

Credible leaders demonstrate their trustworthiness through the ways they communicate with others. For example, they can establish trust through consistent and fair treatment of other organizational participants over time, as well as through fulfilling other orga- nizational participants’ relational expectations. (Recall our earlier discussions about the importance of fulfilling interpersonal expectations when building strong relationships.) However, it is not always easy to build trust with others. It can take a while to establish trust, especially when organizational participants are skeptical about a leader’s motives and actions. Workers are often suspicious of the motivations of formal leaders, especially in organizations where there is not a strong supportive organizational culture.

There is a strong moral dimension to the establishment of trust that relates to the eth- ics of fairness, equity, and empathy. Leaders who treat other organizational participants with respect, deference, honesty, and kindness are likely to elicit reciprocal treatment from these individuals. (Recall our earlier discussions about how the norm of reciproc- ity encourages individuals to respond in kind to the ways others treat them.) The moral characteristics that promote trust can be communicated to others through the consistent use of verbal and nonverbal messages that demonstrate warmth, friendship, respect, and compassion. Comments made by leaders that suggest they really care about the ideas and concerns of workers can help build a sense of trust. Similarly, the sensitive use of genuinely friendly facial expressions, inclusive gestures, eye contact, and supportive (and appropriate) touching behaviors can all help build trust. Unfortunately, although it may take a while to establish trust, leaders can lose trust very quickly by violating expecta- tions, acting rudely to others, or by being dishonest. If trust is lost, it can take a long time and a great deal of effort to reestablish it.

Charisma

Another important dimension of credibility is charisma. Charismatic leaders commu- nicate with dynamism, intensity, and immediacy (Conger & Kanungo, 1987). Charisma is a stylistic dimension of communicators that captures the attention of others, makes others feel comfortable, and increases personal involvement. A critical aspect of cha- risma is immediacy, which refers to the degree to which interpersonal communication is engaging. Immediacy is a critical factor in determining whether communication pro- cesses capture the attention of others, connect organizational participants, and encourage those participants to work together to achieve important goals. Immediacy is a relational dimension of human communication that influences physical and emotional closeness, comfort, engagement, caring, personal involvement, intensity, enthusiasm, authenticity, and enjoyment in human interactions.

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.4 Leadership and Credibility

There is a large body of research on the influences of communication immediacy on instructional outcomes in classrooms (Anderson, 1979; Arbaugh, 2001; Chesebro & McCroskey, 2001; Gorham, 1988; Kelley & Gorham, 1988; Pogue & AhYun, 2006). This research suggests that instructors who communicate with high levels of immediacy can promote closeness and cooperation with students. These studies show that immediacy can increase cognitive and effective learning by students, improve students’ perceptions of instructor’s credibility, enhance student motivation and participation, encourage active communication and feedback between students and instructors, as well as reduce student resistance and verbal aggression. These communication outcomes in the instructional domain would obviously be valuable in other organizational contexts as well.

Organizations in Action Providing Leadership at Costco

Although there’s probably no such thing as a “perfect” leader, there are many examples of good and even inspiring leadership in corporate America. Case in point: Jim Sinegal, the CEO of Costco since 1983.

Sinegal embodies many of the principles for effective leadership discussed in this chapter. First, there is his approachability, trustworthiness, and charisma. He wears a nametag that just says “Jim,” he answers his own phone, and his plain office at headquarters doesn’t even have walls. While other CEOs spend a bundle just decorating their offices and have guaranteed salaries in the millions, Sinegal pays himself an annual base of $350,000. How did he come up with that figure? He decided that he shouldn’t be paid more than 12 people working on the floor. His simple contract is only a page long and even includes a section outlining the ways he can be terminated for not doing his job effectively (Stansberry, 2010).

Second, Sinegal is aware of the potential problems connected to being at the “top.” That includes the way leaders can be insulated from their employees, creating the “mum effect,” and the idea that leaders can be perceived as aloof and indifferent. About 200 days out of every year, Sinegal tours actual Costco stores. He checks out the potatoes, the carrots, the perfume, and the baked goods, talking and listening to employees along the way. He’s not afraid to be straightforward and down-to-earth. And being “on the floor” as much as he is gives him both a sense of immediacy and credibility (Ruggeri, 2009).

Third, Jim utilizes what Douglas McGregor (1960) would call a “Theory Y” approach to management. The average wage for Costco employees is $19 an hour, and 86 percent get health care and benefits, even though half of them are part-time workers. Why is he so generous? Sinegal’s answer: “It’s really pretty simple. It’s good business. When you hire good people, and you provide good jobs and good wages and a career, good things are going to happen. We try to give a message of quality in everything that we do, and we think that that starts with the people. It doesn’t do much good to have a quality image, whether it’s with the facility or whether it’s with the merchandise, if you don’t have real quality people taking care of your customers.” Such an attitude qualifies as “therapeutic” leadership, helping employees develop a feeling of pride in what they do (Ruggeri, 2009).

How does Costco’s Jim Sinegal exhibit leadership?

(continued)

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.5 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication and Leadership

7.5 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication and Leadership

There are a number of verbal and nonverbal communication strategies that leaders can use to enhance levels of immediacy to build their charisma: • Addressing people by name helps to personalize communication. For many work-

ers, it is uplifting to learn that their bosses actually know their names. • Using collective terms (such as “we” and “us”) creates a sense of inclusion and

cooperation between leaders and organizational participants. • Using familiar terms and explaining complex concepts increases understanding

between leaders and organizational participants. • Providing opportunities for casual interaction between leaders and organizational

participants helps to break the ice, reduce tension, and build rapport. • Creating opportunities for subordinates to provide leaders with specific and

appropriate feedback helps to make sure workers understand information being provided and lets workers know how well they are doing.

• Asking for input on organizational decisions, seeking feedback, and encouraging workers to express their personal preferences and concerns helps to let workers know their opinions matter.

These and other verbal communication strategies can help enhance immediacy in organi- zational interactions, encourage participation, and help build meaningful relationships.

All of these traits and behaviors serve Costco’s needs quite nicely as well. The employee turnover rate is at 12 percent, a very low figure in the retail world; that’s five times less than rival Walmart. And the company continues to make healthy profits on very small margins—in large measure because Costco’s leader has charisma, concern for both people and task, and a commitment to follow through on its promises.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What symbolic messages are communicated by the way that Jim Sinegal enacts his role as CEO? 2. Sinegal spends up to 200 days per year touring individual Costco stores. Do you think there are

any possible drawbacks to such an approach by a CEO? 3. Costco strives to motivate its employees by paying them a competitive wage with competitive

benefits. Are wages and benefits more important to employee motivation than good communication practices?

Sources

Ruggeri, A. (2009, October 22). Jim Sinegal: Costco CEO focuses on employees. U.S.News & World Report. Retrieved from http://www.usnews.com/news/best-leaders/articles/2009/10/22/jim-sinegal -costco-ceo-focuses-on-employees

Stansberry, G. (2010, February 24). 10 examples of tremendous business leadership. American Express: Open Forum. Retrieved from http://www.openforum.com/idea-hub/topics/managing/ article/10-examples-of-tremendous-business-leadership-1

Organizations in Action (continued)

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CHAPTER 7Section 7.6 Key Models of Leadership

There are also a number of straightforward nonverbal message strategies that have been found to enhance immediacy in instructional communication settings that can be easily adapted to other organizational contexts:

• It is important for leaders to communicate in ways that show concern and empa- thy (caring) for others. This can be done by smiling appropriately while talking to show friendliness.

• Gesturing in an animated way while talking to others can enhance the active and dramatic nature of organizational communication.

• Maintaining good eye contact with others can demonstrate personal involvement. • Using vocal variety when speaking to others (avoiding the use of monotone

speech) can highlight key points and keep the interaction interesting. • Portraying a relaxed body posture can increase perceptions of comfort and

accessibility. • Using touch appropriately can help to express feelings and connect with other

organizational participants personally.

The more successful leaders are at communicating with immediacy, the more likely they are to engage and influence other organizational participants. For example, waiters and salespersons have been taught to increase the immediacy of their communication with customers to increase customer satisfaction, sales, and tips. Notice the next time you’re in a restaurant how the best waiters and waitresses use verbal and nonverbal strategies to increase immediacy.

7.6 Key Models of Leadership

Numerous models of leadership have been developed to explain how leaders can best serve organizations as well as to guide the development of effective leadership. We have already discussed two popular but limited models of leadership in this chapter, the trait model of leadership and Weber’s bureaucratic model of leadership. As noted earlier, the trait model of leadership is based on the assumption that leaders display certain physical, educational, and social characteristics or traits. For example, the trait model suggests that robust, tall, handsome, and deep-throated individuals make the best leaders. However, as we discussed earlier, popular evidence suggests that the trait model is overly simplistic, as evidenced by scores of leaders who do not possess the requisite physical traits and who are nonetheless effective leaders.

Weber’s bureaucracy model of leadership spawned the development of the classical model of organization in which leaders are expected to exert control and enforce strict rules in organizations. However, because the top-down, authoritarian nature of bureaucratic lead- ership can frustrate and alienate organizational participants, this model of leadership has most likely caused as many organizational problems as solutions. As we pointed out ear- lier in this chapter, the bureaucratic model of leadership is also limited because it takes into account only the formal aspect of organizational communication and completely dis- regards informal organizational communication. This is a serious problem since informal relationships and communication have tremendous influences on organizing processes.

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The bureaucratic model also tends to be rather limiting to the potential of many organiza- tional participants since it emphasizes the formal leaders as the only real decision makers in organizational life and relegates most other organizational members to rather passive roles as mindless followers.

In this section, we will examine some more sophisticated models of leadership that pro- vide greater emphasis on the importance of strategic organizational communication. We will start with the Theory X and Theory Y models of leadership.

The Theory X and Theory Y Models of Leadership

Douglas McGregor, a well-known human relations theorist of organizations, developed a provocative model of leadership that compared classical organizational theories of leadership with human relations theories of leadership (1960). The classical approach to organizations focuses on tight organizational structure, authority, and high organizational productivity and is influenced by the bureaucratic model of leadership. The human rela- tions approach to organizations, on the other hand, was developed as a counterpoint to the classical approach and suggests that the most effective organizations try to involve workers, fulfill their needs, and provide them with opportunities for growth and personal actualization. McGregor argued that leadership behaviors are based on assumptions lead- ers make about workers. Theory X, based on classical theory, poses the following basic assumptions about workers:

• They have an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if they can. • They have to be forced to work hard to achieve organizational tasks. • They prefer to be directed, want to avoid responsibility, have little ambition, and

desire security.

Theory Y, based on human relations theory, poses the following basic assumptions about workers:

• They do not have an inherent dislike of work and will work hard voluntarily if they want to in order to achieve goals.

• They can and will exercise self-direction and self-control in accomplishing organi- zational tasks to which they are committed.

• They can achieve personal satisfaction and growth from their jobs. • They can learn to accept and seek responsibility. • They have the capacity to exercise a high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and

creativity in solving problems and accomplishing tasks. • They have the potential to learn, grow, and expand their contributions to the

organization.

McGregor argued that the Theory Y approach to leadership was far superior to the more dominant Theory X approach. He explained that Theory Y leaders encouraged coopera- tion from workers, gave workers opportunities to grow, and built strong worker loyalty, commitment, and identification with their organizations. He encouraged the develop- ment of training programs that would help leaders learn how to communicate humanely

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with workers to facilitate greater worker satisfaction and involvement in organizational life. He saw the best leaders as facilitators who would encourage, support, and promote worker participation and growth. Some classical theory critics referred to this perspective sarcastically as the “happy boys approach.”

The Leadership Styles Model

Another popular leadership model that developed out of the human relations approach to organizations is the leadership styles model, popularized by Kurt Lewin and his asso- ciates (Lewin, Lippit, & White, 1939). This model identifies three primary approaches to leadership that can be used in different situations in organizations: the autocratic, demo- cratic, and laissez-faire (delegative) leadership styles. These three leadership styles differ in terms of the amount of control the leader wields over followers, with the autocratic leader wielding the most control, the democratic leader sharing control with workers, and the laissez-faire leader delegating control to the workers.

The autocratic leadership style is very similar to the bureaucratic approach to leader- ship. Autocratic leaders make most organizational decisions without consulting with others. The leader calls all the shots, tells workers what to do and how to do it. The autocratic leadership style appears to work best in emergency situations, where there is little time for consultation. It also works well when there is little need for input on decisions, where decisions would not likely change as a result of input, and where the motivation of people to carry out subsequent actions would not be affected by whether they are involved in decision making. Recall how Mayor Rudi Giuliani took charge dur-

ing the 9-11 terrorist attacks in New York City, providing a sense of order and stability during an emergency. Can you think of autocratic lead- ers who you have answered to in different orga- nizations? How much did you like working for an autocratic leader?

Leaders who adopt the democratic leadership style share responsibility and involve other organi- zational participants in decision making, although the process for the final decision may vary from the leader having the final say to them facilitating consensus in the group. Democratic decision mak- ing is usually appreciated by workers, who often like having input into their jobs and other orga- nizational activities. However, democratic deci- sion making can take a lot of time and can lead to conflicts when there are a wide range of decision opinions and there is no clear way of reaching an equitable final decision.

Leaders who adopt the laissez-faire leadership style share power with workers and delegate

What leadership style do you imagine Martha Stewart employs?

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decision-making authority to those individuals who are directly involved in the decision- making situations. The goal of the laissez-fair leader is to minimize his or her involve- ment in decision making and empower other organizational members to make their own decisions, although the leader may still be responsible for the outcomes of the decisions. The laissez-faire style works best when workers are capable and motivated to make their own decisions. This works especially well for local decisions where there is no require- ment for a central coordination, such as in sharing resources across a range of different people and groups. It is important for the laissez-faire leader to help prepare workers for making good decisions by providing them with needed information about the nature of the decisions and their implications for the organization.

The Situational Model of Leadership

The situational model of leadership is based on the assumption that there is no one right way of leading. Rather, the best leaders adapt to the unique situational constraints to exhibit the appropriate leadership style for the situation. For example, in an emergency situation, such as when responding to a hurricane or flood, there is no time for delib- eration among organizational participants. The leader should be decisive, directive, and autocratic, especially when there is limited expertise and experience among the organiza- tional participants in the best ways to react to these kinds of emergencies. When there are longer-term issues, such as long-range planning meetings, a more consultative, collabora- tive, and democratic approach to leadership would be warranted, especially when orga- nizational participants have a stake in the decision making and have needed expertise to contribute to deliberations. Finally, a more delegative, laissez-faire leadership approach might be warranted when working with highly trained, expert, and responsible orga- nizational participants who are motivated to address the tasks at hand, such as when a department chair delegates authority to senior faculty members to make decisions about how to teach their classes.

Likewise, organizational theorists P.R. Lawrence and J.W. Lorsch (1967) recommend a contingency approach to leadership that suggests there is no one right way to organize, and that leaders need to make decisions about guiding organizational activities based on specific organizational goals, the unique attributes of organizational participants, avail- able equipment and technologies, and environmental constraints.

The Task and Relationship Models of Leadership

Several well-known leadership theorists have proposed several related models of leader- ship that examine the extent to which leaders emphasize achieving organizational tasks (task orientation) in comparison to their emphasis on maintaining good relationships among organizational participants (maintenance orientation). For example, Rensis Lik- ert (1961) referred to these two leadership perspectives as being either job-centered or employee-centered. Some theorists see these leadership orientations as being connected on different ends of a leadership continuum, with the focus on task situated on one end of the continuum and the focus on people situated on the other end of the continuum. R.M. Stodgill and A.E. Coons (1986) took this continuum approach one step further by plotting

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these orientations into a model that compared a leader’s focus on initiating structure (task orientation) with the leader’s focus on initiating consideration (maintenance orientation). They identified four leadership styles based on the different combinations of leadership focus on initiating structure and consideration:

• A leader with a high focus on initiating structure coupled with high focus on con- sideration demonstrates strong concern for both getting jobs accomplished and on meeting the needs of workers.

• A leader with a high focus on initiating structure coupled with a low focus on con- sideration demonstrates strong concern for getting the job done, but less concern about the needs of workers.

• A leader with a low focus on initiating structure coupled with high focus on con- sideration demonstrates a lack of concern for accomplishing tasks, but is very con- cerned about meeting the needs of workers.

• A leader with a low focus on initiating structure coupled with low focus on con- sideration demonstrates a lack of concern for both accomplishing tasks and about meeting the needs of workers.

Which of these four leadership styles do you think would be most effective? In their orga- nizational grid model of leadership, Robert R. Blake and Jane Mouton (1985) compare leaders’ concern for people with their concern for task. They plotted these leadership ori- entations on a nine-point grid, with concern for people on one axis of the grid and con- cern for task on the other axis of the grid. Based on leaders’ levels of concern for task and people, they could receive a score that placed them somewhere on the grid:

• A leader who received a score of 9-9, representing high concern for task and high concern for people, was referred to as a team leader.

• A leader who received a score of 9-1, representing high concern for task but low concern for people, was referred to as a task leader.

• A leader who received a score of 1-1, representing low concern for both task and people, was referred to as an impoverished leader.

• A leader who received a score of 1-9, representing low concern for task but high concern for people, was referred to as a country club leader.

• A leader who was plotted in the middle of the grid with a score of 5-5, representing medium levels of concern for both task and people, was referred to as a middle of the road leader.

Blake and Mouton recommend that leaders be trained to become 9-9 leaders who demon- strate high concern for both task and people.

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Organizations in Action Indra Nooyi Leads PepsiCo to Profits

As women continue to break through the corporate glass ceiling, we encounter more and more inspiring tales of notable female leaders. A good illustration: Indra Nooyi, CEO of PepsiCo, who has been on Time magazine’s list of the 100 most influential people in the world.

Blake and Mouton’s managerial grid, discussed in this chapter, proposes that leaders need to be concerned with both production and with people. From all accounts, Nooyi excels at both. Howard Schultz, the CEO of Starbucks, has described Nooyi as a “world class leader” with “a sharp strategic mind and tremendous market insight,” whose humanitarian contributions “all combine to make her a rare executive among the global corporate giants.” (Brown, 2009)

By any measure, PepsiCo has been hugely profitable on Nooyi’s watch. Nooyi is known for her aggressive deal making and as the force behind most of Pepsi’s strategic moves. But as noted in this chapter, good leaders go beyond the bottom line—they “personalize” their communication to help others feel known and recognized. In Nooyi’s case, that practice even extends to the spouses of her valued colleagues. According to Forbes, she sends a hand-written letter every quarter to the spouses of all 27 of her top executives, thanking them for their support despite the long hours of work and travel that can keep them from their loved ones. (Time, 2007)

The Forbes interview also notes that she “sincerely looks at the company as her family,” making time for regular staff who need to talk to her—even the security guards at corporate headquarters. Nooyi told a Toolbox.com interviewer, “You need to look at the employee and say, I value you as a person. I know that you have a life beyond PepsiCo, and I’m going to respect you for your entire life, not just treat you as employee number 4,567.” Such efforts represent a tangible concern for both “task” and “people,” an important dual concern in Blake and Mouton’s organizational grid. (Brown, 2009)

Another element of effective leadership is charisma, and Nooyi possesses that attribute in spades. According to Business Week, she has been known to “patrol the office barefoot at times and even sing in the halls”—the latter is a holdover from her teen years in an all-girl rock band in her native India. She even gave a departing executive, Roger Enrico, a karaoke machine, and she once hired a live band to help senior executives belt out tunes at a management conference. Enrico says, “Indra can drive as deep and hard as anyone I’ve ever met, but she can do it with a sense of heart and fun.” (Bloomberg Businessweek, 2007)

It’s difficult to take care of business and also take care of the people in it, but Indra Nooyi has made a determined effort to do so.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Is there an inevitable tradeoff between “production” and “people” in organizational life? Is it realistic to be what Blake and Mouton call a true “team” leader who excels equally in both?

What makes Pepsi CEO Indra Nooyi a good leader?

(continued)

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Therapeutic Communication and Leadership

Some recent conceptualizations of leadership based on feminist theory suggest that the best leaders are caring, supportive, and empathetic to other organizational participants. These therapeutic leaders demonstrate sincere concern and appreciation for others in organiza- tional life. This therapeutic approach is certainly different from the classical authoritarian leaders who wielded strict control and meted out rewards and punishment. The therapeu- tic leadership approach builds out of the human relations theory that emphasized helping workers achieve their personal goals through their active participation in organizational life. The notion behind therapeutic leadership is that we spend a lot of our lives working in organizations, and we should do our best to make this time valuable, meaningful, and gratifying.

Therapeutic leaders help workers achieve these goals by finding meaning and pride in their work. They use communication to provide organizational participants with relevant information and feedback that gives them insights into organizational situations and into themselves. Therapeutic leaders communicate honestly, caringly, and sensitively to oth- ers. They treat each worker as an individual, recognizing each person’s unique contribu- tions to organizational life. They help workers solve their problems as well as develop confidence and skills so they can be successful. Therapeutic leaders encourage workers to feel good about participating in the organization.

Can you think of leaders who were therapeutic for you, who helped you solve problems, grow, and feel good about participating in an organization? Perhaps there were teach- ers who did this for you, or maybe it was a parent or another relative? How could you become more therapeutic as a leader in the organizations that you participate in?

2. Based on what you’ve read here, what might be possible drawbacks or potential problems with Indra Nooyi’s approach to leadership?

3. If you were a corporate leader, what would you bring to an organization that could help create a charismatic style?

Sources

Time. (2007). The 2007 TIME 100. (2007). TIME SPECIALS retrieved at http://www.time.com/time/ specials/2007/time100/article/0,28804,1595326_1595332,00.html

Brown, H. (2009, April 15). Management advice from Mom. In Forbes.com. Retrieved from http:// www.forbes.com/2009/04/15/pepsico-ceo-management-forbes-woman-power-careers.html

Bloomberg Businessweek. (2007, June 11). Indra Nooyi: Keeping cool in hot water. In Bloomberg. Retrieved from http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/07_24/b4038067.htm

Caliendo, H. (2010, October 29). A refreshing take on leadership: Indra Nooyi, CEO of PepsiCo. In Toolbox.com. Retrieved from http://hr.toolbox.com/blogs/360-degree-feedback/a-refreshing-take -on-leadership-indra-nooyi-ceo-of-pepsico-42195

Organizations in Action (continued)

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Case Study Welcome to the New School of Communication

Jeff Williamson was appointed as the founding dean of the new School of Communication at Knollwood University, a selective private university located in the affluent suburbs of New York City. Jeff was a charismatic communication scholar and academic administrator who had been successful in other university programs. The School of Communication had been established about a year before he was hired. The university administration combined three small undergraduate academic departments that had been part of the large College of Arts and Sciences. The departments of journalism and media studies, speech communication, and radio-television-film were brought together to comprise the new School of Communication.

The school was housed in the new state-of-the-art communication building that included professional-level video, film, and radio production studios, computer labs, and post-production suites, as well as faculty offices and classrooms. The university made a big investment on the infrastructure for the new School of Communication, with plans that it would become a center of excellence and distinction that would compete with established media programs located at prestigious urban universities such as NYU, UCLA, and USC. The administration felt that the school’s location near the major New York City media industry, as well as the financial resources and connections they had from affluent and influential community leaders, would help make this a great school. However, the university administration expended more resources into building the media production facilities of the new school than on upgrading the academic components for the new school, overemphasizing the importance of physical infrastructure and underemphasizing human resources in building the school. Most of the school’s faculty had been long-term members of the small, teaching-oriented departments that were pulled together to create the new school. Very few of them were well-known scholars, and most did not have a clear vision about what it would take to develop programs of academic excellence. It was up to the new dean to move the school forward.

Knollwood University was a friendly and student-focused university, with a nicely landscaped tree- lined campus, good facilities, and good undergraduate programs. The university hosted many activities, such as theatrical performances, concerts, and fairs that drew members of the suburban community to campus. Most of the students came from the suburbs or surrounding areas. They were primarily above average but not outstanding students who appreciated the dormitories and facilities at the university, its proximity to New York City, and the active fraternities, sororities, and extracurricular programs on campus.

Many members of the university’s faculty and administration had spent their entire academic careers at the university. There were few, if any, nationally distinguished academic programs on campus, since the primary focus of the university was on undergraduate education and not on advancing new knowledge. Most faculty members focused more on teaching and keeping the undergraduate students happy than on developing strong graduate programs or producing important research and publications. However, members of the university administration had visions of raising the national academic stature of Knollwood University, which was respected in the region but was not well known on a national level. They hoped the new School of Communication would be a major step in upgrading the university.

Upon the establishment of the new school, a well-respected and seasoned academic administrator, Associate Provost Ethel Schmidt, who had spent more than 30 years at the university, was assigned to serve as the interim dean while the university conducted a year-long search to hire the full-time founding dean. Ethel did not know much about the study of communication since her academic training had been in physical education. However, she was well connected across the university, politically savvy, and a decisive academic administrator who fought for resources from the university for the new school. She largely deferred to the school’s faculty concerning the design of educational programs and did not demand much from them in terms of scholarly productivity, (continued)

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especially since she really didn’t know much about their areas of study. Ethel found that she enjoyed being the interim dean of the School of Communication more than she liked being the associate provost. It was exciting to help build a new school, and she liked the faculty in the school’s departments, many of whom were long-time friends. The senior faculty, particularly the department chairs, liked Ethel too. They found her to be very nurturing and supportive without demanding much from them. It was sad for them when she left the school to return to her position as associate provost.

The new dean, Jeff Williamson, was hired because he was an experienced leader in the communication discipline, a noted communication scholar (with an extensive list of research publications and academic awards concerning the applications of communication in society), and had served successfully in similar academic positions at other universities. He had experience as a faculty member and administrator at several large public research universities, and had also served as an organizational consultant, an advertising/marketing executive, and as a senior research fellow for federal government agencies. In his former position as dean of a large school of communication at a major urban public research university on the West Coast, he helped build new research and graduate programs, as well as innovative collaborations with media conglomerates, government agencies, nonprofits, and corporations. He had attracted significant donor support for media production facilities and enhanced national recognition for the school. He believed his experience prepared him well for the challenge of bringing the new school to academic prominence. The university’s long-time President and Provost assured Jeff that they shared his goals and would support him in his efforts to build one of the best Schools of Communication in the country.

While Jeff did not know most of the faculty in the new School of Communication at Knollwood prior to taking the job, he was sure he would build good professional relationships with them as he had at his previous university posts. Things did not go as the new dean had planned. The faculty did not welcome him with open arms as he expected that they would. Many of the faculty members still felt a strong allegiance to the interim dean, Ethel Schmidt, who they continued to meet with informally. They resented this new dean moving in to Ethel’s former role, even though she had returned to her previous job as associate provost. Among themselves they would say that Ethel was the real founding dean of the school and recount stories about how much better things were when she was in charge. The school’s faculty members were not happy with the new dean’s suggestions about what they needed to do to build strong academic programs, his recommendations about which job candidates were best prepared to be hired for new faculty positions, or with his expectations that the school’s faculty should engage in active programs of research and publication. They were infuriated when he would not support some long-time faculty for promotions because they had not built records of significant shared scholarship. They refused to deliver when the new dean asked them to develop plans for introducing graduate programs within the three departments. How dare this new dean hold them to new standards and tell them what to do! Why couldn’t he be more like Ethel, who advocated for them without interfering with the way they did their jobs?

Several senior faculty members complained bitterly to Ethel that the new dean was not treating them well, was interfering with them, and was bossing them around. They asked Ethel to intervene on their behalf. A few senior faculty members who were actively involved in the faculty union reported the new dean to the union, claiming he was violating their academic freedom by telling them what to do. The union held an inquiry, but the charges did not stand. The union ruled that the new dean was within his prerogative to make recommendations and set academic standards. Several senior faculty members and department chairs then went directly to the new dean’s boss, the provost, with their complaints. They said this new dean had to go! Ethel backed up their complaints with the provost privately. She had a lot of credibility with the provost, with whom she had worked closely for many years. Reluctantly, the provost decided that this new dean was causing too much trouble and had to be removed from his post.

Case Study (continued)

(continued)

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CHAPTER 7Summary

Summary

Leadership has been a longstanding concern of organizations as well as the literature on organizations. Traditionally, leadership has often been viewed from a trait-based perspective. Although such an approach has some value, we give special attention to a communication competencies conceptualization of leadership, in which leadership is not a set of physical assets or personality traits but a set of skills that can be used to bring people together. In this regard, a situational approach to leadership is also more appealing than a trait approach because it considers the specific context in which lead- ers must operate.

Leadership involves formal and informal communication along with horizontal and ver- tical channels; therefore, leaders must learn how to make the best use of these various

Jeff was shocked at this outcome. He was just doing what the administration wanted him to do to build the new school. How could this happen? Within a few months he was hired for another exciting senior communication leadership position in another region of the country. He was very successful in this new job, where he started important new national communication research programs. The School of Communication at Knollwood University never developed into a leading academic program, despite their excellent media production facilities, prime location, and strong financial resources.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Analyze the effectiveness of formal university leadership in this case. How effective was the university administration in communicating with the new dean? How effective was the new dean in communicating with the faculty members within the school?

2. What role did informal communication play in this case? Was there a grapevine that conveyed information related to this situation? Can you identify any informal leaders?

3. How does the unique culture of the university influence leadership communication in this case? Were there things the new dean could have done to learn more about the university’s culture?

4. Describe the use of the Theory X and Theory Y model of leadership in this case. Provide specific examples of Theory X and Theory Y leadership activities that were performed in the case. What were the outcomes of these leadership activities?

5. Describe the use of the different leadership styles in this case. Provide examples of specific autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership activities performed in the case. What were the outcomes of these leadership activities?

6. How effective were the leaders in this case in adapting to the unique organizational situations they encountered, demonstrating situational leadership? What could these leaders have done differently?

7. Describe the use of task and relational models of leadership in this case. Provide examples of specific task-related and relationship-related leadership activities that were performed. Where would you rate the different leaders in this case on Blake and Mouton’s organizational grid? What were the outcomes of these leaders’ task and maintenance activities?

8. How could the new dean have used therapeutic communication in this case? Give some examples of how he could have been more therapeutic within the new school.

Case Study (continued)

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CHAPTER 7Summary

avenues of communication. Leadership should also be differentiated from management, which involves different skills and goals. Several models of leadership try to identify sty- listic options for leaders—these include McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y; Lewin, Lip- pit, and White’s leadership styles model; and Blake and Mouton’s organizational grid. More recently, conceptualizations of leadership based on feminist theory have suggested a “therapeutic” model may be useful for all leaders to consider.

Discussion Questions

1. Although a trait-based approach to leadership has its limitations, are there certain personality traits that you believe all leaders and managers should possess? If you had to pick the three most important traits, what would they be?

2. The “mum effect” proposes that subordinates can be punished for providing honest feedback to management. Have you ever been punished for such honesty, or purposely stayed “mum” due to fear of being punished?

3. A distinction is made in this chapter between “leadership” and “management.” Do you think you make a better “leader” or a better “manager”? Why?

4. Sometimes credible leaders need to demonstrate expertise by correctly using “specialized language,” such as professional jargon. When have you observed such use of jargon, and are there times when too much jargon can be a problem?

5. Do you see yourself as more of a “Theory X” or “Theory Y” manager? What are the strengths and weaknesses of each theory, and why do you favor one over the other?

6. In what situations would an autocratic leadership style be appropriate? In what situations would a democratic style be preferred? And are there situations where a laissez-faire leadership style would be the best option?

7. What are the connections between McGregor’s Theory X/Theory Y, Lewin’s leadership styles model, and Blake and Mouton’s organizational grid? What do these models have in common, and how do they differ?

8. Former British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli once said, “I must follow the people. Am I not their leader?” What do you suppose Disraeli meant by this rather cryptic comment?

9. Kenneth Blanchard, of One Minute Manager fame, has written, “The key to successful leadership today is influence, not authority.” If he’s right, what are the implications of this idea for leadership and management?

Key Terms

Autocratic leadership style Very similar to the bureaucratic approach to leadership. Autocratic leaders make most organiza- tional decisions without consulting others.

Charisma An important dimension of cred- ibility. Charismatic leaders communicate with dynamism, intensity, and immediacy.

Cognitive features approach An approach to leadership derived from the trait-based conceptualization of leadership that sug- gests that intellectual characteristics, such as individual knowledge, creativity, and intuition, contribute to effective leadership.

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Communication competencies concep- tualization of leadership Approach that focuses on the abilities of organizational participants to communicate with others in ways that inspire confidence and encour- age cooperation as the essence of effective leadership.

Contingency approach An approach to leadership that suggests there is no one right way to organize, and that leaders need to make decisions about guiding organizational activities based on specific organizational goals, the unique attributes of organizational participants, available equipment and technologies, and environ- mental constraints.

Country club leader According to Blake and Mouton, a leader who received a score of 1-9, representing low concern for task but high concern for people, was referred to as a country club leader.

Democratic leadership style Style in which leaders share responsibility and involve other organizational participants in decision making, although the process for the final decision may vary from the leader having the final say to him or her facilitating consensus in the group.

Immediacy A critical aspect of charisma. It refers to the degree to which interper- sonal communication is engaging

Impoverished leader According to Blake and Mouton, a leader who received a score of 1-1, representing low concern for both task and people, was referred to as an impoverished leader.

Laissez-faire leadership style Style in which leaders share power with workers and delegate decision-making authority to those individuals directly involved in decision-making situations.

Leadership styles model Another popular leadership model that developed out of the human relations approach to organizations.

Maintenance orientation A factor exam- ined by leadership theorists. Emphasis on maintaining good relationships among organizational participants.

Managers Not necessarily synonymous with leader. Managers enforce rules and regulations, often forcing workers to com- ply with their orders and authority. Man- agers are needed to maintain stability and structure in organizational life.

Middle of the road leader According to Blake and Mouton, a leader who was plot- ted in the middle of the grid with a score of 5-5, representing medium levels of con- cern for both task and people, was referred to as a middle of the road leader.

Organizational grid model of leader- ship A model by Robert R. Blake and Jane Mouton that compares leaders’ concern for people with their concern for task.

Personality factors Factors related to personality that contribute to leadership success according to trait theory.

Physical features approach An approach to leadership that suggests that physical stature, attractive facial features, and a strong speaking voice are some of the key attributes of effective leadership.

Situational model of leadership Model based on the assumption that there is no one right way of leading.

Task leader According to Blake and Mou- ton, a leader who received a score of 9-1, representing high concern for task but low concern for people, was referred to as a task leader.

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CHAPTER 7Summary

Task orientation A factor examined by leadership theorists. The extent to which leaders emphasize achieving organiza- tional tasks.

Team leader According to Blake and Mouton, a leader who received a score of 9-9, representing high concern for task and high concern for people, was referred to as a team leader.

Theory X McGregor’s theory postulat- ing that leadership behaviors are based on assumptions leaders make about work- ers. It assumes that workers dislike work, have to be forced to work hard to achieve organizational goals, and that they prefer to be directed.

Theory Y A theory based on human rela- tions theory that assumes workers do not inherently dislike work, they can exercise self-direction, and can achieve personal satisfaction through work.

Therapeutic leaders According to some recent conceptualizations of leadership based on feminist theory that suggests therapeutic leaders are the best lead- ers, because they are caring, supportive, and empathetic to other organizational participants.

Trait-based model of leadership A popu- lar model of leadership that suggests cer- tain traits lead to effective leadership.

Trustworthiness A key trait of credible leaders established through fair and con- sistent treatment of others.

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