For A- plus Writer

Learning Objectives

What We Will Be Investigating: • Understand how “culture” is defined and the many influences of culture on human behavior

and sense-making. • Understand the differences between culture at individual, organizational, and societal levels. • Appreciate the significance of corporate stories to the development and maintenance of

organizational culture. • Understand what it means to have a “strong” organizational culture. • Understand how organizational culture is both promoted and shared. • Explain what the grapevine is and what role it plays in organizational communication. • Recognize that there are many different types of cultural identities. • Understand the difference between a cross-cultural and a multicultural approach to intercultural

communication. • Understand the nature and influences of ethnocentrism and cultural stereotypes on

organizational life. • Appreciate the implications of the “iceberg model” to a study of culture. • Recognize the differences between the cultural segregation, naïve integration, and pluralistic

integration approaches to intercultural interaction.

Chapter 6

Culture and Organizational Communication

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CHAPTER 6Introduction

We have two ears and one mouth so that

we can listen twice as much as we speak.

—Epictetus

Chapter Outline

6.1 Organizational Culture Strong Culture Organizations Communicating Organizational Culture

6.2 Organizational Communication Across Cultures Types of Cultural Identity Cultural Norms

6.3 Cultural Variation and Organizational Communication Cross-Cultural and Multicultural Approaches to Intercultural Communication

Discovering Culture through Organizational Communication

6.4 Valuing Diversity to Promote Multicultural Synergy The Cultural Ideologies Model

Introduction As the diversity of organizational participants has grown, culture—the shared ways that groups of people are encouraged through their social group memberships to interpret reality and respond to the different situations they encounter—has become an increas- ingly important factor in organizational life. Culture is reflected in the similar ways that groups of people are taught to understand situations. These interpretations include shared frameworks for meaning that cultural group members have developed for making sense of a wide range of activities, including what family life is about, what entertainment they enjoy, and in what educational activities they engage.

Culture is also reflected in the ways people learn how to communicate, such as the lan- guages and dialects they speak, and the communication media they use (such as email, texting, phone, or snail mail). Culture is even reflected in the ways we are taught to dress in different situations (such as at work, home, or in our places of worship) and the foods we eat. For example, how do you know what foods are appropriate for breakfast? Many Americans believe that foods like pancakes, eggs, and cereal are appropriate breakfast fare, but in other cultures people eat raw fish, spicy soups, and fried tofu for breakfast. These cultural differences exert strong influences on people and how they understand their world and respond to different situations.

Indeed, culture has powerful and widespread influences over all aspects of modern life, including organizational communication. We learn about the similarities and differences between cultures in order to understand the intentions and actions of different people, as well as to help them communicate effectively across cultures.

In this chapter, we will examine “culture” in two different ways. Because any group that shares norms, rules, and values can be considered a culture, we will first examine organi- zational culture—that is, the idea that when you walk into any organization, you are enter- ing a place that has a set of shared understandings, and they will be different depending on whether you are walking through the front door at Hewlett-Packard or the front door at Southwest Airlines. The second sense of “culture” that we will examine involves those

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.1 Organizational Culture

cultural differences defined by national boundaries, race, and ethnicity—in other words, at a broader societal level. In this context, doing business in Malaysia will need to be con- ducted differently than in Norway, and if your multinational employer has operations in both of these nations, the firm will need to adapt to cultural differences between the United States, Malaysia, and Norway.

This chapter therefore examines the pervasive influences of culture in both of those senses: as something that organizations have and as something that societies have. Throughout this chapter, we will examine the complexity of cultural variation to identify the many levels of culture that influence organizational expectations and activities. We will explore national, ethnic, racial, religious, socioeconomic, geographic, age-based, and gender-based cultural influences on organizing. We will also describe the communication factors we can use to help establish effective communication climates and organizational cultures. Along the way we will examine communication strategies that promote cooperation and satisfaction in organizational life. The chapter ends with a case study that illustrates the communica- tion and cultural factors that influence organizing as well as ways to use strategic com- munication to promote cultural synergy.

6.1 Organizational Culture

One of the more interesting cultural influences on communication of particular relevance to organizational life is the development of organizational culture. Organizational cul- ture refers to the collectively held underlying beliefs, logics, and legends concerning organi- zational life that organizational participants learn and use to guide their behaviors. As we will discuss later, these beliefs, logics, and legends are imbedded in and transmitted through both formal and informal channels of organizational communication. Organizational culture defines the identity of the organization to both members and nonmembers, cues members of the culture about how they should represent the organization, and helps members make sense of their role in the organization and the larger role of the organization within society.

Strong Culture Organizations

In many ways, organizational cultures are similar to national cultures, where cultural norms are established and rein- forced to guide member interpretations of organizational reality and the per- formance of organizational activities. Some organizations have relatively well- developed cultures and strong identi- ties. Examples of some of these strong culture organizations include Google, Microsoft, Walmart, the National Can- cer Institute, and Harvard University. Each of these organizations has a well- developed identity, a clearly defined his- tory, committed members, and powerful

Google has a laid-back and creative organiza- tional culture. What is the organizational cul- ture at the organizations you take part in?

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.1 Organizational Culture

organizational values. Strong culture organizations exert a great deal of influence over their members.

Organizational communication performs a primary role in the development and main- tenance of organizational cultures. As an organization’s identity emerges, organizational participants interpret the organization’s past and present, making sense of organizational life and creating stories and legends about organizational activities. These stories and leg- ends provide a thematic base for the development of collective visions about the future of the organization. Culturally derived explanations about what the organization is, what it does, how it goes about accomplishing its goals, where it has been, where it is going, and what role organization members perform in these activities are essential elements in the development of organizational culture. For example, a famous story that is part of IBM’s corporate culture involves Thomas Watson, the founder and CEO of the company. One time Watson was visiting an IBM facility, and a security guard (who didn’t recognize him as the CEO) refused to let him enter a restricted area without the proper badge. Watson’s colleagues were aghast, but instead of firing the guard, Watson sent someone off to get his badge. The lesson of the story? No one at IBM—not even the CEO—is “above the law.” In other words, embedded within such stories are values that help define what kind of organizational culture you are in.

An organization’s culture also encourages organization members to accept culturally approved beliefs, values, and attitudes as their own. In strong organizational cultures, these culturally approved beliefs, values, and attitudes are clearly defined. Members of these organizations are socialized to accept these notions about organizational reality. Members must behave in accord with the social order presented to them if they are to be accepted as members of the culture. Continuous, often unanimous, support for adher- ence to the organization’s cultural norms are reinforced by members of the organization through metacommunication—which, as we discussed in an earlier chapter, is communica- tion about the ways that individuals communicate—that punishes cultural deviance and rewards adherence to cultural norms.

In strong organizational cultures, members share a common frame of reference on orga- nizational activities and organizational life. This common frame of reference is based on the underlying logics and legends of the culture that members share. These organizational

members recognize their interdependence and feel a bond with one another due to their common cultural affiliation. The cul- ture provides its membership with a com- mon language, value system, and vision about the organization’s future, which enhances communication and cooperation among members and facilitates their abil- ity to coordinate their activities and cre- ations of meaning.

For example, the Disney organization tries to create this common frame of reference by its use of language within its work- force. The visitors to Disney World are not

What kind of organizational culture might have contributed to the News of the World phone-hacking scandal?

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.1 Organizational Culture

“customers”—they are “guests.” When employees enter the Magic Kingdom, they are not “at work”—they are “on stage.” And no one at Disney wears a “uniform”—they wear a “costume.” All of these uses of language are designed to remind Disney employees that they are not in just any business—they are in show business. Since an organization’s culture prescribes the ways in which organizational participants should react symbolically to situ- ations by presenting them with culturally approved explanations for organizational phe- nomena, it provides its members with shared perceptions of social reality and a common sense of social order. This sense of social order enables constituents of the organizational culture to coordinate their behaviors.

Organizations in Action Did BP Exhibit an Organizational Culture of “Risk” and “Complacency”?

British Petroleum, or BP, is a global oil and gas company operating across six continents and doing business in more than 80 countries. It has about 80,000 employees and annual revenues of approximately $300 million, producing 2.4 million barrels per day at its 16 refineries for distribution at 22 thousand retail sites.

BP espouses a “culture of safety,” but following the 2010 Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explosion in the Gulf of Mexico, which killed 11 workers and sent nearly 5 million barrels of oil into the Gulf, other aspects of organizational culture within BP were alleged to have contributed to the disaster.

William Reilly, co-chair of the U.S. Presidential Commission named to investigate the spill, pointed to the lack of “a culture of safety on that rig.” He was quoted as saying that a “suite of bad decisions” revealed “a culture of complacency” at BP as well as its main contractors, Transocean and Halliburton (Mufson, 2010). Commission co-chair Bob Graham noted that there were a series of “almost incredible failures” in the days and hours before the spill. The Commission’s initial findings pointed to BP’s plan to seal off the well, which investigators said increased the chance of an explosion. Investigators alleged that BP was hurried and made last- minute changes inconsistent with normal procedures in deep-water drilling (Goldenberg, 2010).

The Commission concluded that BP workers “failed to ask a knowledgeable company engineer who was visiting the rig about unexpected results from a critical negative pressure test on the rig” and that “the crew’s misreading of that pressure test and the decision to move ahead with temporary abandonment of BP’s Macondo well was a major catalyst” for the explosion (Jefferson, 2011).

The New Orleans Times-Picayune concluded, “BP managers, faced with the choice of saving money or following the safer route, put the company’s pocketbook ahead of safety at five key junctures leading to the rig’s April 20 explosion.” (BP’s culture of risk: An Editorial, 2010) After the Presidential Commission issued its report, a Deepwater Horizon Study Group was formed by the Center for Catastrophic Risk Management (CCRM) at UC Berkeley. The leader of that group later stated, “BP has a corporate culture that ‘was embedded in risk-taking and cost-cutting,’ and that played a role in the disaster.” (Hammer, 2010)

How did BP’s organizational culture lead to the Deepwater Horizon disaster and its aftermath?

(continued)

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.1 Organizational Culture

Communicating Organizational Culture

The potential benefits of organizational culture in helping organizational participants to both interpret and respond appropriately to complex organizational phenomena can be of great value to modern organizations. When knowledge of the benefits of organi- zational culture is coupled with recognition of the role of organizational communica- tion as a pervasive channel for cultural information, several directions for enlightened organizational practice become apparent. Organizational leaders can use both formal and informal communication channels to educate members about the organizational culture, socialize organization members into the culture, and eventually develop strong organizational cultures.

Formal communication channels such as advertising, slogans, annual reports, newsletters, written correspondence, internal company documents, group meetings, and speeches should be designed to promote the development of strong organizational cultures. Cul- tural values, company history, organizational heroes and villains, significant cultural symbols, and visions for the organization’s future can be presented to the organization’s relevant internal and external publics through formal communication. Orientation pro- grams as well as in-house training and development programs can be designed to help organization members learn about their organization’s culture, thereby helping them identify more fully with the organization and coworkers, as well as helping them direct their organizational activities in accordance with cultural norms.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Why are there sometimes conflicting understandings of culture within an organization? 2. Is it possible for an organization to have more than one culture, and if so, is it possible to identify

the dominant culture in an organization? 3. What evidence would you seek to ascertain an organization’s culture?

Sources

1. Mufson, S. (2010, November 9). “Culture of complacency” at BP set stage for oil spill, commission chief says. The Washington Post. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/ article/2010/11/09/AR2010110906894.html?sid=ST2010111403196

2. Goldenberg, S. (2010, November 9). US oil spill inquiry chief slams BP’s “culture of complacency.” The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/nov/09/oil-spill -inquiry-culture-complacency-bp

3. Jefferson, C. (2011, February 17). White House Commission: BP Oil Spill Was “Entirely Preventable.” Good Culture. Retrieved from http://www.good.is/post/white-house-commission-bp-oil-spill-was -entirely-preventable-1/

4. BP’s culture of risk: An editorial. (2010, September 8). New Orleans Times Picayune. Retrieved from http://www.nola.com/news/gulf-oil-spill/index.ssf/2010/09/bps_culture_of_risk_an_editori.html

5. Hammer, D. (2010, November 26). Scientists, drilling experts say BP valued speed over safety in oil rig disaster. New Orleans Times Picayune. Retrieved from http://www.nola.com/news/gulf-oil-spill/ index.ssf/2010/11/scientists_drilling_experts_sa.html

Organizations in Action (continued)

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.1 Organizational Culture

Informal communication channels can also be used to promote organizational culture. One example is the company grapevine— which, as we discussed in Chapter 1, is the informal, unofficial communication network of the organization that includes everything from stories in the lunchroom or the parking lot to chats over email and those legendary discussions around the water cooler. Not surprisingly, the grapevine, like some other informal com- munication channels, is more difficult to direct than formal communication chan- nels. Because informal channels are more difficult to control, management often concentrates only on formal channels of

communication, either avoiding informal channels or allowing them to develop on their own. Informal channels of communication, however, can be productively integrated with formal channels of communication in organizations, developing a complementary over- lap between formal and informal dissemination of cultural information. Management can help direct the grapevine by feeding its informal leaders with culturally relevant informa- tion. For example, if the firm is planning to restructure its operations, it may be better to formally communicate how and why; otherwise, inaccurate rumors can fly through the organization because grapevines buzz when there is apprehension and uncertainty.

Organizational stories and storytelling should be recognized as a potentially important informal communication channel for disseminating cultural information throughout the organization. Storytelling is generally an enjoyable social form of organizational interac- tion that enables members to get to know one another and develop cooperative inter- personal relationships. Organizations can also utilize storytelling to help members learn about the organization’s history, folklore, and heritage.

Organizational history is typically taught to new members as a means of creating an iden- tity for the organization and explaining its important themes and values. Current mem- bers often explain the company’s history and goals to uninitiated new members, often in terms of “This is the way things are done around here and have been done in the past.” Consider Walmart, for example. Sam Walton, the company’s founder, was famous for the stories told by and about him, especially those that featured his visits to his stores. One of those tales involved Walton overhearing a customer complain to a clerk that the fishing rod he bought at Walmart had broken. In response, Walton walked over to the fishing rod section of the store, got an identical replacement, and gave it to the customer along with a deep apology. Obviously, the moral of the story is that “we care about our customers and we are committed, from top to bottom, to serve them.”

Think about the organizations you participate in. What organizational cultures have been established? What stories, legends, and folklore about their history are shared in these organizations? What primary values are held? Are there established rules for dress, lan- guage use, and goals within these organizations? Who are the heroes and villains within these organizations? Would you consider these organizations to have strong or weak

How do you participate in grapevine communication?

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.2 Organizational Communication Across Cultures

cultures? How do these organizational cultures contribute to the success of these organi- zations? If you could change any aspect of the organizational cultures, what would you change? How could you initiate these changes?

6.2 Organizational Communication Across Cultures

Now that we have examined the cultures that organizations themselves possess, we can turn to communication issues at the societal level. Even without leaving the country, we know that race and gender are aspects of culture that transcend particular organizations. Increasing numbers of women, minority group members, and others who had previously confronted barriers to organizational opportunities are now moving up the corporate ladder. This growing diversity has challenged all organizational members to adapt their communication to match the backgrounds, expectations, and communication styles of other organizational members.

Not only have the numbers of organization members representing different cultural back- grounds grown, there has also been a growing demand for international cooperation. For example, the growth of multinational corporations has challenged organization members to build relationships with partners from different countries who often speak different languages, have different business customs, and perceive organizational issues in differ- ent ways. The increases in cultural diversity in organizational life demand strategic inter- cultural organizational communication.

Types of Cultural Identity

As we discussed in Chapter 3, we each belong to different cultural groups, and the cultural groups we affiliate with help us define who we are and shape how we communicate (that is, encode and decode messages). In many ways we can describe ourselves in terms of these cultural affiliations and the roles we perform within cultural groups.

For example, each of us can describe ourselves based on a number of cultural groups we identify with, including country of citizenship (“I am an American”), ethnic background (“I am an Asian American”), race (“I am white”), gender (“I am a female”), religion (“I am a Christian”), education (“I am a college student”), occupation (“I work as a salesperson for an electronics retail store”), mari- tal status (“I am single”), sexual orientation (“I am heterosexual”), and even hobbies (“I am a salsa dancer”). Each of these cultural affiliations, and many more, help create who we are and influence how we think, communicate, and behave. What are the cultural affiliations you use to describe

How do your cultural affiliations shape the way you behave and communicate?

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.2 Organizational Communication Across Cultures

yourself? How do these cultural affiliations influence how you interpret the world and how you behave? Which cultural affiliations have the greatest influence over you? Which have the least influence?

In many ways, the “societal” aspect of intercultural communication may be most closely tied to one’s country of citizenship. Although every individual is unique to some extent, it becomes clear that one’s national origin has enormous impact on our shared norms and rules. Virtually everyone who grows up in Japan, for example, appreciates that Japanese culture has a strong “group” focus—Japanese culture is more “collectivistic” than the United States. A well-known Japanese proverb is, “The nail that sticks up gets hammered down,” suggesting that individuality is less important than fitting in with the group. On the other hand, virtually everyone in the United States is familiar with a motto such as “do your own thing” that celebrates American individuality. In other words, national origin is among the most powerful forces behind shared cultural values, reinforced by what people in that nation say and do. In any nation, these norms and values are reinforced through their laws, their media messages, their school systems, their families, and a host of other sources. National origin, therefore, is indeed a critically important part of cultural affiliation.

Cultural Norms

There is an intricate and circular relationship between our cultural affiliations and the ways we communicate. As we discussed in Chapter 3, the cultural groups we affiliate with establish rules, known as cultural norms, for appropriate behavior in different situations. These cultural norms strongly influence how we communicate. For example, as a college student, you are most likely influenced by norms for the appropriate use of language when communicating with a professor. You probably use formal language rather than slang and speak in coherent sentences rather than colloquialisms. These are the unspoken rules (norms) for expected communication with a professor.

Although cultural norms guide our communication, communication within cultural groups also serves as a socializing process through which we learn about cultural norms. In fact, communication is used not only to educate cultural group members about impor- tant norms but also to enforce conformity with norms. For example, in many world cul- tures (large parts of Asia, Africa, and the Middle East), the left hand is the “unclean” hand. In such cultures, one should not eat with the left hand, pass documents with the left hand, or pay for your dinner with the left hand. If you do, you will often learn pretty quickly that this is unacceptable. Similarly, in certain parts of the world, if a man offered to shake the hand of a woman, it would be immediately awkward because such touching is really not allowed. Cultural group members are therefore acculturated—taught about cultural norms and reinforced to follow those norms—through their regular interactions with other cultural group members. How other members of a cultural group communi- cate with you encourages you to learn and accept central (culturally approved) norms through an ongoing process of socialization.

As we discussed in Chapter 3, we are also typically informed by other cultural group members when we violate cultural norms, such as when we say something inappropriate or dress in ways that challenge cultural expectations. The ways in which cultural norms are reinforced is often invisible to members of the culture, yet these socialization processes are amazingly effective. If you plan to continue your membership within the cultural

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.3 Cultural Variation and Organizational Communication

group, you learn to follow the established norms. However, because we are all members of various cultural groups, there may be times when the norms of one culture conflict with the norms of other cultures. We have to choose in these situations which norms to follow.

For example, the social group you belonged to in high school probably had different norms for appropriate dress and communication than the norms established by your family. You had to decide whom you were going to please by the way you dressed and spoke, your fam- ily or your peer group. On the other hand, if you’re in China, you’ll have to decide if you can eat the live eel that’s been brought to your table as part of a dinner with your Chinese busi- ness colleagues. If you’re in Pakistan, you’ll need to figure out what to do during the month of Ramadan, when all of your Muslim counterparts won’t eat or drink from sunrise to sun- set. These are the kinds of cultural conflicts that most people must negotiate in modern life.

6.3 Cultural Variation and Organizational Communication

As modern organizational life becomes increasingly diverse, it is important to develop effective communication strategies that help organizational participants share infor- mation and coordinate activities. The greater the cultural variation in organizational life, the greater the challenge is to mediate cultural differences through effective and sensitive intercultural communication. Sensitive and effective intercultural communication does not just happen automatically, however. As we will see, intercultural communication competencies must be developed and nurtured within organizations.

Cross-Cultural and Multicultural Approaches to Intercultural Communication

There are two different commonly used approaches to studying intercultural communica- tion and culture in organizational life, the cross-cultural and multicultural approaches:

• The cross-cultural communication approach to intercultural communication focuses on examining the primary features and differences between major cultural groups, such as the features and differences of members of certain nations, races, or ethnicities.

• The multicultural communication approach to intercultural communication examines the variety of unique cultural influences on each individual communi- cator. This approach takes a broader multiple-influence individualistic focus on intercultural communication than the cross-cultural approach.

Both approaches to intercultural communication are valuable but highlight different aspects of culture. Let’s look at each a bit more closely.

The Cross-Cultural Communication Approach Cross-cultural communication focuses on the primary cultural affiliations of communica- tors. For example, the cross-cultural approach emphasizes attention to the unique cultural

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.3 Cultural Variation and Organizational Communication

norms within a specific culture, such as learning about the communication patterns within a specific country such as Japan. An American business leader using the cross-cultural approach to intercultural communication to prepare to negotiate a business deal with a delegation from Japan would learn about Japanese language, customs, and business com- munication protocols, such as the intricate Japanese ritual for exchanging business cards prior to beginning discussions. Being aware of these societal differences can help to avoid needless errors that would otherwise occur; what’s “normal and acceptable” in the United States can be frowned on in other nations, and vice versa. Therefore, organizations have a vested interest in knowing how something is done “over there.”

A limitation to the cross-cultural approach, however, is the failure of this approach to adapt to individual differences in communication based on a person’s unique combina- tion of cultural memberships. The cross-cultural approach is based on the shaky assump- tion that all members of a certain culture will follow the typical cultural patterns of that group. Do all Japanese business leaders follow the same protocols? No, they don’t. There is tremendous variation with adherence to cultural norms within cultural groups.

It would be dangerous to assume that all members of a culture follow the general guidelines for cultural communication, especially because there are multiple cul- tural influences on individual communi- cation behaviors. Although it is a good idea to learn about the general commu- nication norms of a certain culture, it is dangerous to blindly follow those general cultural guidelines with everyone from that culture.

Cross-cultural communication empha- sizes mediation between cultural differ- ences based on these primary cultural affiliations. Because cultural values are so deeply ingrained—indeed, cultures must promote a set of norms and values in order to sustain themselves—there is a tendency for members of all cultures to see things mainly from their own cultural

perspective. For example, the United States is regarded as more of a “materialistic” cul- ture than many others; we tend to focus on the material world. Therefore, when we see a family without a TV set or indoor plumbing, we tend to notice that in ways that people from other cultures might not. We would be more inclined to consider such a situation as “odd,” simply because we are unaccustomed to seeing it. The inability to see things through other cultural lenses than your own would be considered ethnocentrism.

In its better-known and more virulent form, ethnocentrism can then morph into a judg- ment about other people and other cultures. Ethnocentrism can induce people to assume that their cultural perspectives are “correct,” and other cultural perspectives are “wrong.” Ethnocentrism can cause many problems when we are communicating with people from different cultural backgrounds because it encourages us to think that we are better than

What does exchanging business cards mean to you? What might it mean to someone from Japan?

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.3 Cultural Variation and Organizational Communication

people from other cultures, it alienates those people from us, and discourages them from cooperating with us. Often ethnocentrism leads to assumptions (stereotypes) that we may develop about why people from different cultural backgrounds behave differently than we do.

Often these stereotypes classify people from different cultural backgrounds as being either “mad or bad.” Mad interpretations about others suggest that people from different cultural traditions act differently than we do because they are crazy, incompetent, uneducated, or stupid. Bad interpretations of people from other cultures assume that they act differ- ently than we do because they are evil, malicious, untrustworthy, or hostile. These “mad or bad” stereotypes inevitably cause problems with intercultural relations. Later in this chapter we will examine strategic communication strategies for reducing ethnocentrism, mediating cultural differences in organizational life, and developing effective and coop- erative intercultural relationships.

The Multicultural Communication Approach The multicultural approach to intercultural communication enables strategic organiza- tional communicators to adjust their communication strategies to the person they are interacting with to meet that person’s unique communication needs and expectations. Recall our discussion in Chapter 3 on interpersonal communication and the development of implicit contracts when building effective interpersonal relationships. The multicul- tural approach to intercultural communication encourages us to learn about the unique interpersonal needs of the people we are communicating with to promote interpersonal adaptation and relational development. However, it is often difficult to learn about the variety of cultural factors that influence an individual’s communication behaviors, so organizational communicators using the multicultural approach to intercultural commu- nication must actively seek information from their relational partners and be particularly sensitive and adaptive to these communicators’ unique needs. In many Latino cultures, for example, the family is at the core of one’s existence in ways that go beyond “American” views of the family. If a Latino employee says that he can’t go on a business trip because he would miss his daughter’s quinceanera party, that has to be taken very seriously; a Latina girl’s 15th birthday party is a culturally significant event that simply shouldn’t be ignored. In such a situation, a U.S. manager needs to be prepared to negotiate a way to manage this cultural difference.

Combining Approaches Truly strategic organizational communicators combine the cross-cultural and multicul- tural communication approaches. They use the cross-cultural approach to learn as much as they can about the cultural norms and expectations of the different cultures they are likely to interact with in organizational life. However, they don’t stop there. They also use interpersonal communication to find out about the multiple cultural influences driving the behaviors and sense-making activities of the organizational participants with whom they interact. Armed with general knowledge about cultural norms and specific knowl- edge about the mix of cultural influences on the individuals that you interact with in organizational life, you have good information for guiding strategic organizational com- munication decision making.

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Organizations in Action Communication Challenges and International Marketing

Marketing and advertising offer sufficient challenges within a particular nation or culture, but when such efforts cross cultural boundaries, the opportunities for mistakes only multiply. One legendary example: the Chevy Nova, a car from the 1970s whose name, translated into Spanish, means, “It doesn’t go.” But this is just the tip of a very large iceberg. The following are some other examples, courtesy of Kwintessential.com:

• Pepsodent tried to sell its toothpaste in Southeast Asia by emphasizing that it “whitens your teeth.” They found out that the local natives chew betel nuts to blacken their teeth, which they find more attractive.

• A company advertised eyeglasses in Thailand by featuring a variety of cute animals wearing glasses. The ad was a poor choice since animals are considered to be a form of low life, and no self-respecting Thai would wear anything worn by animals.

• The soft drink Fresca was being promoted by a saleswoman in Mexico. She was surprised that her sales pitch was greeted with laughter, and later embarrassed when she learned that fresca is slang for “lesbian.”

• Kellogg had to rename its Bran Buds cereal in Sweden when it discovered that the name roughly translated to “burned farmer.”

• When Pepsico advertised Pepsi in Taiwan with the ad “Come Alive with Pepsi,” they had no idea that it would be translated into Chinese as “Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the dead.”

On another website, Dr. Deborah Swallow notes that “United Airlines unknowingly got off on the wrong foot during its initial flights from Hong Kong. To commemorate the occasion, they handed out white carnations to the passengers. When they learned that to many Asians white flowers represent bad luck and even death, they changed to red carnations.” (Swallow, 2009)

Finally, it’s worth noting that these cultural misunder- standings work both ways. According to Dr. Swallow, the Swedish furniture giant IKEA somehow agreed upon the name “FARTFULL” for one of its new desks marketed and sold in the United States. (Enough said!)

Critical Thinking Questions

1. For what reasons would intercultural marketing gaffes, such as those listed in the preceding examples, occur?

2. In what specific ways do you think these marketing mistakes reflect ethnocentrism? 3. How do you suppose businesses need to operate in an intercultural environment to avoid such

problems?

Sources

Kwintessential. (n.d.). Results of poor cross cultural awareness. Retrieved from http://www .kwintessential.co.uk/cultural-services/articles/Results%20of%20Poor%20Cross%20Cultural% 20Awareness.html

Swallow, D. (2009, August 20). Cross cultural marketing blunders. In General, Marketing Blunders. Retrieved from http://www.deborahswallow.com/2009/08/20/cross-cultural-marketing-blunders/

What challenges does Sweden-based Ikea face when communicating about its products around the world?

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.3 Cultural Variation and Organizational Communication

Discovering Culture through Organizational Communication

Culture is communicated in many ways in organizational life. Many important aspects of cultural communication are difficult to observe directly, such as culturally based beliefs, values, and attitudes. These are the hidden dimensions of culture. Other aspects of culture are more obvious, such as cultural artifacts like clothing, art, music, and design factors. Perhaps, however, the most revealing aspects of culture are the communication behaviors that individuals engage in. Strategic organizational communicators pay close attention to these behavioral factors that reveal the inner cultural orientations and influences on the organizational participants with whom they interact.

One way to think about culture is through the metaphor of an iceberg. Figure 6.1 presents the iceberg model of communication and culture, which depicts those aspects of culture that are visible (above the sea level at the tip of the iceberg), such as gender, age, ethnicity, language, and skin color, and those aspects of culture that are not easily observed (that is, below the waterline), such as socioeconomic status, occupation, sexual orientation, politi- cal ideology, health status, and cultural beliefs and expectations (Kreps and Kunimoto, 1994). These below-water aspects of culture are those that we need to discover to guide effective intercultural communication. Just as the captain of a ship must be cautious to avoid steering the ship into the hidden formations of an iceberg that are underwater, orga- nization members must be cautious to learn about the hidden dimensions of culture to guide effective intercultural communication.

Strategic organizational communicators must strive to learn about the cultural orienta- tions of the people they work with in organizational life. Developing a strong sense about the cultural perspectives of their partners enables organizational actors to make good decisions about the best ways to communicate with these individuals. They can guide their communication to match cultural expectations, fulfill implicit contracts, and build effective relationships that promote cooperation. If, for example, an organization has

Sea level

Gender Age

Ethnicity Language Skin color

Socio-economic status Occupation

Sexual orientation Political ideology

Disability and health Cultural beliefs, expectations.

Figure 6.1: The Iceberg Model of Communication and Culture

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.4 Valuing Diversity to Promote Multicultural Synergy

Muslim members, there will need to be some thoughtful negotiation: should a prayer room be constructed for them? Is it OK to serve pork chops in the cafeteria? Can whiskey still be a part of the Friday afternoon celebrations? These and many other things would be a part of building such relationships.

Or, imagine that your direct supervisor is an Arab-American man who is a strict follower of Islam. It would be wise for you to learn about some of the primary norms from his cultural background that may be influencing his communication expectations. You could use this knowledge to avoid communicating in ways that may violate your supervisor ’s cultural expectations, including guiding your use of eye contact, touching behaviors, and language. In the end, the best strategic organizational communicators employ both cross-cultural and multicultural communication strategies to guide intercultural com- munication. From the cross-cultural perspective, they strive to learn about the normative guidelines for communication that derive from their organizational partner ’s primary cultural affiliations.

From a multicultural communication perspective, it is also important for strategic orga- nizational communicators to supplement their general information about cultural norms with specific information about the unique combination of cultural affiliations that make up the backgrounds of the individuals with whom they work. To return to our previ- ous example about the Arab-American supervisor, by learning more about his cultural affiliations, you can further adjust your interaction with him to match his unique expec- tations. In addition to his ethnicity and religion, you might learn his involvement and interests in engineering, politics, and baseball strongly influence him. This additional information can provide you with message strategies to capture his attention, explain your ideas, and influence his decisions. In this case, you might have assumed that the man only cared about the “world sport” of soccer, but it turns out he is a baseball fan; that changes the “small talk” you might make with this person. And if you know that engineering is one of his passions, then questions about engineering become a way to establish rapport. Cultural stereotypes can give us clues about others, but individual differences still must be taken into account, and that is what strategic organizational communication is all about.

6.4 Valuing Diversity to Promote Multicultural Synergy

As we noted at the beginning of the chapter, organizations are becoming increasingly culturally diverse, with participants having different backgrounds, races, and nation- alities. In many modern organizations, for example, there are more women in managerial positions, more foreign-born workers, and increased variation in the educational, eco- nomic, religious, and social backgrounds of the people who work there. These different organizational participants are likely to have unique perspectives on the world and may exhibit distinct ways of communicating. This creates both a challenge and an opportunity for effective organizational communication. The challenge is to learn about the unique cul- tural communication perspectives of the different organizational participants you work with and to develop effective communication strategies for encouraging them to cooper- ate with you. The opportunity is to learn from the unique perspectives, experiences, and ideas that these diverse organizational participants can share.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.4 Valuing Diversity to Promote Multicultural Synergy

Recall that earlier in this text we discussed the theory of weak ties (Granovetter, 1973). We found that weak ties (people who are very different from us who we do not normally affiliate with) often have a great deal of insightful information to share with us. The key to strategic intercultural communication is to develop the communication skills to develop trusting relationships with these individuals to encourage them to share their unique per- spectives with us.

The Cultural Ideologies Model

Many of the cultural barriers that limit the effectiveness of communication in diverse organizations are based on detrimental ideologies that guide intercultural relations. The cultural ideologies model identifies three major cultural ideologies that have emerged over time as competing interpretive frameworks for guiding the ways organizational par- ticipants respond to the equivocality (uncertainty of cultural diversity) (Kreps and Kuni- moto, 1994). These three ideologies include

• Cultural segregation • Naïve integration • Pluralistic integration

Let’s look at each of these ideologies in more detail.

The Ideology of Cultural Segregation The earliest and perhaps most prevalent of these perspectives is the ideology of cultural segregation. This ideology emphasizes cultural dominance and separation between the dominant culture (usually the cultural group that has been around the longest or that controls the largest share of economic resources within the system) and other “mar- ginal” cultural groups. In the ideology of segregation, the group that serves as the dom- inant culture dictates the cultural standards by which all organizational participants are judged. The dominant culture in many U.S. business and professional organizations is often white, male, well-educated, and wealthy individuals, although this may vary based on which cultures are numerically predominant or influential within a particular organization. The dominant culture establishes normative rules for acceptable behavior within social systems, forcing all members to either adopt these behaviors or be iso- lated, alienated, and punished. Within organizations, such punishment often takes the form of limited access to information as well as decreased social influence and respect. Under this “melting pot” ideology, individuals are encouraged to give up their own cultural identities and to the greatest extent possible, adopt the cultural perspective of the dominant culture.

The ideology of cultural segregation is based on ethnocentrism, where members of the dominant culture assume their cultural perspective is best and other cultural orientations are inferior. This ethnocentric orientation alienates individuals who are not members of the dominant culture, decreasing the exchange of relevant information between individu- als from different cultural perspectives and diminishing the extra energy (synergy) that derives from multicultural cooperation.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.4 Valuing Diversity to Promote Multicultural Synergy

The Ideology of Naïve Integration The second cultural ideology to emerge is the ideology of naïve integration, which pur- ports to fully accept all cultural groups, but, like the ideology of segregation, this ideol- ogy really emphasizes cooptation of the marginal culture by dominant cultural groups. This ideology publicly espouses respect for different cultural perspectives, yet those in key decision-making positions invariably follow the ethnocentric dogma of the dominant culture. For example, token representatives of marginal cultural groups are often hired to visible positions within modern organizations to give the image of organizational plural- ism, but these individuals are rarely given much authority unless they denounce their cultural roots and adopt the dominant norm system. The naïve integration ideology is prevalent in modern organizational life, and it causes as many problems as the ideol- ogy of segregation because, like the ideology of segregation, it undermines multicultural synergy. Naïve integration is even more sinister than the ideology of segregation because it falsely purports to respect cultural diversity, giving culturally diverse organizational participants the false expectation of equity and opportunity.

The Ideology of Pluralistic Integration The newest cultural ideology to emerge is the ideology of pluralistic integration. In this ideology, respect is shown for cultural diversity; members of different cultural groups are encouraged to retain and express their cultural perspectives, and social sys- tems reap the benefits of having members share information, eliciting both cooperation and synergy. This ideology is difficult to implement because it depends on using com- munication to establish and maintain effective multicultural relations. Therefore, com- petent and sensitive communication is the key to pluralistic integration and effective multicultural relations in organizational life. Strategic organizational communicators follow the ideology of pluralistic integration to promote cultural synergy in organiz- ing and to overcome widespread problems of cultural disenfranchisement in modern organizational life.

How do organizational leaders espouse the ideology of pluralistic integration? First, they need to reinforce the value of diversity in organizational life by investing in diversity. Organizational participants from different cultural backgrounds need to be given oppor- tunities to use their unique expertise to address important organizational issues. Key decision-making groups should be composed of diverse representatives who can provide insights about different populations and activities relevant to the mission of these groups. Training is one way to help organization members overcome cultural prejudices and to limit ethnocentrism. We must always remember that ethnocentrism is to some degree inevitable. Being raised in a given culture is like being a fish in an aquarium—you are so accustomed to the aquarium that you have difficulty seeing it as an “outsider” would. That’s why intentional diversity—which is also largely inevitable in the global village of the 21st century—has potential value. Diversity in some ways is problematic and chal- lenging, but it also offers the opportunity for true synergy. In short, team-building activi- ties designed to deal with this diversity can foster intercultural cooperation and synergy in organizational life.

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.4 Valuing Diversity to Promote Multicultural Synergy

Case Study

Revitalizing an Inner-City Park and Community

Marvin Gaye Park (MGP) is located in a poor, predominantly African American neighborhood in Northeast Washington, DC, near the Anacostia River. The large, previously undeveloped public park was originally named Watts Branch Park for the stream running through it. However, after a major park revitalization, the park was renamed for famous music star Marvin Gaye, who had grown up in the once proud neighborhood. The park is located close to public schools and a large subsidized public housing development where many families with children live.

The park would seem to be an ideal place for children to play. However, both the park and its surrounding neighborhood had become rundown and dangerous through years of neglect and a growing illegal drug trade within the community. The park had become a hangout for dangerous gangs and was a frequent site of violent activity. The park was even known as “Needle Park” because it had become a haven for drug users and drug dealers. The park was poorly maintained and littered with thousands of pounds of broken beer bottles, empty beer cans, trash, and used hypodermic needles. Even the police were apprehensive about patrolling it.

Residents of the community were once proud of their neighborhood and of the park, but due to the deterioration of the park and the criminal activities there, they had become afraid to allow children to use the park. They felt captive by the growing criminal elements in their own neighborhood and wanted to improve the park and the community. Several long-term members of the community banded together in a community association. They decided they wanted to reclaim their neighborhood, and they thought they could begin the process by cleaning up the park. Government officials referred them to a local community development nonprofit organization called Washington Parks and People (WPP) that had been working to reclaim community parks.

In 2001, leaders from WPP embraced the opportunity to revitalize the park and established a partnership with a major national parks organization, the National Recreation and Parks Association (NRPA). Together WPP and NRPA solicited donations from recreational equipment companies, landscapers, and other organizations to help renovate the park. With the help of a coalition of residents from the local community association, several city agencies, WPP, and NRPA, funds were allocated to revitalize the park. Teams of residents, city officials, and volunteers banded together to drive the gangs out of the park, clean up and landscape the park, and build new recreational facilities. In the continuing effort, volunteers hauled away at least 40,000 bags of garbage, 14,000 hypodermic needles, and 89 abandoned vehicles. Millions of dollars were spent on shrubs, trees, lighting, a trail, an amphitheater, stream restoration, and a revitalized playground.

In August 2009, community residents celebrated the opening of a new playground area within the park, which was formally renamed Marvin Gaye Park. The revitalized park had a brand new play area with various modern playground activity stations, including a cone-shaped activity center complete with a swing and climbing nets, two spin apparatuses, and an octagon-shaped piece of equipment with climbing nets. A special safety surface throughout the play area and park benches around the perimeter completed the installation. The renovation represented a significant environmental change for the community served by the park since the original condition of the park did not adequately support youth physical activity to any extent and was not considered a safe location by the community residents.

After years of decline and disuse of the park by members of the community, a confluence of local businesses, government agencies, and neighborhood groups were organized to work together to help rebuild and revitalize the community recreational area. These collaborating institutions (continued)

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CHAPTER 6Section 6.4 Valuing Diversity to Promote Multicultural Synergy

were able to collectively reshape the urban park to help increase physical activity, security, and investment in the revitalized neighborhood. A significant benefit of the urban park revitalization was the focus on building community facilities that residents could use and feel pride in. After the park and playground renovation, area residents, especially children, were more likely to use the park facilities and engage in physical activity there.

The renovation of MGP made a major difference in the community. Children from the neighborhood actively used the new playground equipment and enjoyed MGP as a major recreational outlet. Community pride increased, and residents spent time and energy maintaining the park, keeping it clean and inviting. Criminal activity in the community was reduced, police presence increased, and the term “Needle Park” was no longer used to refer to the park. Nearby crime dropped. The neighborhood high school is now undergoing a total makeover and new townhouses are under construction.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. How did the community organizational culture change after the renovation of Marvin Gaye Park? What role did communication perform in changing this organizational culture?

2. Contrast the cultural norms held by the community residents with the cultural norms held by the people who were utilizing the park. How did these contrasting cultural factors lead to the deterioration of the park?

3. Who were some of the cultural heroes and villains within this community? How did these heroes and villains influence cultural norms and logics within this community?

4. Identify the different organizations involved in the renovation of the park. What role did these different organizations play in renovating the park? Consider some of the cultural differences between these different organizations, such as the community association, the different DC city agencies, the Washington Parks and People organization, the National Recreation and Parks Association, and the different recreational equipment corporations that participated in this process. What challenges might there have been in communicating effectively across these different cultures?

5. Examine this case from both a cross-cultural perspective and a multicultural perspective. What are some of the major cultural norms that influenced the activities in this case? What combinations of cultural affiliations were likely to influence the activities of different participants in this case?

6. What communication activities would you suggest to help sustain the community development improvements achieved in this case? What role might metacommunication and socialization perform in preserving and institutionalizing changes in the culture of this community?

7. What kinds of cultural logics do you think can be communicated by recounting the story about the revitalization of Marvin Gaye Park? How can these stories help to change the culture of the community?

8. What are some of the cultural logics that were associated with Needle Park? How did these logics influence the community?

9. Examine this case from a cultural diversity perspective. What are some of the different cultural groups that were represented by participants in this case? How well were participants in these different groups able to communicate across these cultures?

10. Which of the ideologies from the cultural ideologies model are represented in this case? Is there evidence of valuing cultural diversity in this case? How was this value for cultural diversity communicated?

Case Study (continued)

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CHAPTER 6Summary

Summary

Culture—the shared ways that groups of people interpret reality and respond to the different situations they encounter—is an important element in organizational life. Culture can be thought of as something that organizations have, such as the culture of IBM, or something that societal groups have, such as the culture of Vietnam. Overall, our cultural identity is based on a number of factors, including our country of origin, our race, our gender, our religion, or our occupation.

Within organizations, cultural values are promoted and reinforced through a wide range of formal and informal corporate messages. Some organizational cultures are very “strong” in the sense that their cultural values are clearly articulated and widely shared within the organization. Across national cultures, differences in cultural norms and values are numerous; understanding these differences is critical for intercultural understanding and to avoid ethnocentrism. In addressing cultural differences, it’s important to appreciate the differences between cultural segregation, naïve integration, and pluralistic integration.

Discussion Questions

1. One way to understand an organization’s culture is to consider its external messages such as slogans and mission statements. What do these external messages suggest about the culture of an organization?

2. As discussed in this chapter, culture is based on the cultural groups we identify with, including our country of origin, our race, our gender, our religion, or our occupation. Of the factors listed here, which is the most influential to your cultural identity? Which is least influential?

3. Have you ever become aware of the norms of an organizational culture by violating them? What specifically happened, and how did you learn that you were a cultural “rule-breaker”?

4. The use of language is discussed in this chapter as an indicator of an organization’s culture. In the places where you have worked, how has language been used to help define the culture? What types of words or expressions are part of that organizational culture, and what types are not?

5. Although stereotypes can be positive, negative, or even neutral, what negative ethnic stereotypes do you think affect interpersonal relationships in an organization? And how should we deal with such stereotypes?

6. What are the biggest problems or obstacles connected to dealing with cultural differences in the workplace? What specific issues or groups come to mind?

7. If you were sent on a business trip to China, what types of things would you need and want to know in order to be interculturally appropriate and effective?

8. What are the possible advantages and disadvantages of the approach to the intercultural ideology called “pluralistic integration”?

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CHAPTER 6Summary

Key Terms

Cross-cultural communication approach Approach to intercultural com- munication that focuses on examining the primary features and differences between major cultural groups, such as the features and differences of members of certain nations, races, or ethnicities.

Cultural ideologies model A model that identifies three major cultural ideologies that have emerged over time as compet- ing interpretive frameworks for guid- ing the ways organizational participants respond to the equivocality: cultural segregation, naïve integration, pluralistic integration.

Culture The shared ways that groups of people are encouraged through their social group memberships to interpret reality and respond to the different situations they encounter.

Iceberg model of communication and cul- ture A model that depicts those aspects of culture that are visible (above the sea level at the tip of the iceberg), such as gender, age, ethnicity, language, and skin color, and those aspects of culture that are not easily observed (that is, below the waterline), such as socioeconomic status, occupation, sexual orientation, political ideology, health status, and cultural beliefs and expectations.

Ideology of cultural segregation This ideology emphasizes cultural dominance and separation between the dominant cul- ture (usually the cultural group that has been around the longest or that controls the largest share of economic resources within the system) and other “marginal” cultural groups.

Ideology of naïve integration This ideol- ogy purports to fully accept all cultural groups, but, like the ideology of segrega- tion, this ideology really emphasizes coop- tation of the marginal culture by dominant cultural groups.

Ideology of pluralistic integration In this ideology, respect is shown for cultural diversity; members of different cultural groups are encouraged to retain and express their cultural perspectives, and social systems reap the benefits of having members share information, eliciting both cooperation and synergy.

Multicultural communication approach Approach to intercultural communication that examines the variety of unique cul- tural influences on each individual com- municator. This approach takes a broader multiple-influence individualistic focus on intercultural communication than the cross-cultural approach.

Organizational culture The culture that each organization develops with its own unique cultural identity, with its own cul- tural values, goals, and expectations.

Storytelling An important informal com- munication channel for disseminating cul- tural information throughout the organiza- tion. Storytelling is generally an enjoyable social form of organizational interaction that enables members to get to know one another and develop cooperative interper- sonal relationships.

Strong culture organizations Organi- zations with relatively well-developed cultures and strong identities.

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