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:articularly the importance of organization and :uldraising. In fact, in their early years, their appeal was enhanced by the application of cor- :orate and scientific methods to social reform, :articularly among the educated middle and :nper classes. Unlike the COS, however, settle-

=ents lacked clarity on their basic organizational :i- rm and struggled with persistent contradic- :Lans between their democratic values and their ,-::iance on elites for funding and political sup- f,ort (Wenocur & Reisch, 1989).

During World War I, most local nonprofits :egan to be coordinated by business-dominated

-cmmunity Chests, the antecedents of today's lfited Way. The presence of business leaders qstlred the primary of corporate methods and r"r.-ues in the private human services field i,:illiant, 1990). As these agencies professional-

-red during the 1920s, this federated structure xrtr&me the logical vehicle to rationalize philan- lrropv and help nonprofit human services orga- 'r'nv* tions survive fi nancially.

-{t the same time, there was a shift in the over- iunc.t of public services, from volunte er organiza- tr:ns administered by boards to executive-based ,Ffl',ffi.rns of supervision. This reflected an increase m frate and local government involvement in and a'ntol of societal change. The emergence of the fdc of public administration led to increased um:ressionalism in government departments of lmu*::-l rr'elfare. These bureaucracies were receptive m 3e expertise social workers had acquired in umr'ersities and private charitable organizations.

fhe appearance of "welfare capitalism" in the rrn= of company unions and other employee mm,edt packages during the 1920s, however, rum:e,rmined advocates of governmental inter- tmtron in the social welfare arena by promoting ffic rage of the socially responsible corporation urr,ru:se profits were linked to American progress mrc mell-being (Berkowitz & McQuaid, 1980). imer developments that shaped human services mnmrn rlistration in this era included the expansion m rrecialized organizations in such fields as mreadon, mental health, juvenile and criminal nuum=" child welfare, and occupational social

General Themes in the Evolution of HSA 33

work; the formation of a professional infrastruc- ture through such organizations as the American Association for Organizing Family Social Work, the Child Welfare League of America, the National Social Work Council, the Community Chests and Councils of America, and a wide range of professional associations; the nearly 3O0o/o increase in the number of schools of social work between World War I and the Great Depression; the growth of professional journals; and the use of the medical model and corporate manage- ment by many human services agencies (Wenocur & Reisch, 1989).

Consequently, the pattern of administration in these organizations changed considerably during this era (Mclean, ISZZ).4ggg_hggl&-. recruited more individgeb primarily men, with t i"'#A_ woffi ana exfrie199*rnSonp_pfi,t ;1g9p_c19s _as- . aiffi ffitrato rila* es ffi1t s on,_ gqq,gal_scere; tfrE,h.tle:..eh"-d' . Qr,rrit .fro- l@-(Waite,1960).

New executives, like |ackson, often brought their own ideas about the most effective way to organize services. To implement these ideas, they needed to clari!. the executive-board relationship. Agenry executives asserted that the boardb func- tion was to ggtablishpqliry, while that of the exec- utive was to manug. th. 4q4fqpra1jorr fE'*" _ agency, includi4€ the-*niri*ag* q{ pg*gg}S,1" (Kirschner, 1986). In addition to redefining these roles, nonprofits rationalized their procedures through the rotation of board members and the establishment of board nominating committees, limited terms for board members, and annual elec- tions of board officers (Waite, 1960). These devel- opments were less visible in ethnic agencies, which still contained many features of the self-help and mutual aid traditions (Iglehart & Becerra, 1995).

I The growth of federated Communitv Chests,+ further strengthened the role of asency executivell-. nyri"es t""4.rr rU annual fundraisine caiirpaien to replace a contin- uous, yeT-long proc

eacll comryqnltv 4genq, (q pJ965). In most cities, the creation of a "council of social agencies"