Literature Review Final Draft

Introduction Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: Need to rewrite your assignment as a literature review, which is different from a research paper. Make sure to review the assignment instructions again to ensure you do not miss any of the requirements. For example, make sure your literature review is 2000-2500 words. And make sure all your sources are articles from scholarly journals. Also take the opportunity to look at the sample literature review linked to the assignment instructions. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: use bold typeface for headings

Over the years, increasing numbers of youth in the juvenile justice system suffering from various mental health needs have been noted. Due to this reason, significant challenges at policing and at the program level are witnessed at both levels; the juvenile justice and the mental health system. Unfortunately, the number of incarcerated youth in the juvenile justice system has consistently gone up. According to Biggs, Rosenblatt & Rosenblatt (2000), more than 106000 youth are held in custody in the juvenile facilities on an average. It has also been observed that there are substantially more adolescent females in the juvenile justice system comprising up to nearly one third of all juvenile arrests or even more in the United States. What is even more worrying to researchers is that approximately three quarters of these females suffer from one or more psychiatric disorder. Chitsabesan (2006), reported that black youth stood a 85% higher violence odd than white youth. Latinos follow them closely with a 10% lower. This black-white gap and the Latino-white gap is explained by factors such as the neighborhood social context, parents marital status and the immigration generation.

According to Biggs, Rosenblatt & Rosenblatt (2000), 70.4% of all incarcerated youths report a positive diagnosis for a psychiatric disorder. Some of the most common disorders were disruptive behaviors and substance abuse disorder. Both males and females recorded almost similar percentages for substance abuse disorders. However, males recorded higher percentages than females for disruptive behaviors. On the other hand, more females met the criteria for affective disorders. Researchers identified that females displayed higher odds than males of having any disorder except conduct disorder. Some of these disorders include; major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, separation disorder among others.

This research paper will also look into significant ethnic differences in receiving mental health care. Additionally, it will also explore on why ethnic disparities continue to remain as a major issue in public health. Further, this research paper will determine the underutilization of mental health services by children and adolescents. In doing these, this research paper intends to show how incarcerated ethnic minorities have lower levels of mental health problems than their counterparts, identify disparities and ways of adequately addressing them. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: this is suppose to be a literature review, not a research paper - the purpose is to analyze the sources from your annotated bibliography

Childhood Development: Neighborhood Effects

Many incarcerated youths in the juvenile systems attribute some of their behaviors and tendencies to their childhood upbringing. As such, their criminal behaviors may be attributed to the neighborhood effects to which they experienced when growing up. Factors such as neighborhood structure which basically refers to the socio-demographic features of a community such as employment rate and neighborhood social processes which explains the community’s social connections (social organization) which is evaluated based on residents perceptions of how their communities function also serve to shape youths thinking. For instance, Brooks-Gunn & Leventhal (2000), found that the difference in black verses non-black youth violence is majorly a function of residence in a disadvantaged community or neighborhood. As such, knowledge of the structural characteristics of neighborhoods is highly relevant in understanding why youths engage in violence. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: incorrect word Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: need to provide a developed analysis of the source's arguments

One theoretical model which links an individual’s behavior with neighborhood effects is the neighborhood institution resource model. This particular model focuses on the availability, affordability, accessibility and the quality of social, learning and recreational activities, medical facilities, child care and employment opportunities in the community. Some of the key things that one can look out for in a juvenile’s community setting which highlights on the availability of institution resources include the presence of libraries, museums, family resource centers, literacy programs among others. The presence of such institutions demonstrates the levels of learning stimulation children in such communities receive. This in turn can be observed while assessing children’s school readiness and achievement outcomes. Research studies have reported that most youths in juvenile justice systems come from communities lacking in these resources or ones in which they are inadequate. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: which source are you referring to here?

The second model for neighborhood effects is the competition model. Most researches combine it with the institution resource model as they are closely intertwined. Due to the scarcity of institution resources, the most obvious result is high competition for the same. The low socio-economic statuses characterizing most communities in which juveniles are born into are highly competitive race which increases the likelihood of being pushed out of the race at a single slip. Collective socialization is another theoretical model. It argues that individuals are encouraged to conform to social norms dictated by the neighborhood role models among other social pressures. In this model an individual must outdo themselves so as to rise above the minimum threshold required to effect any noticeable change in that neighborhood. Sadly, most incarcerated youths are unable to reach the threshold and therefore end up falling back to illegal activities of that neighborhood. Notably, levels of violence in the community are the strongest predictors of violence among youths. It is also associated with weapon carrying. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: clarify which source is this from

The fourth theoretical perspective is relative deprivation. This view suggests that residents who happen to achieve some form of social-economic success are viewed as sources of dis-amenities for their less fortunate neighbors (Brooks-Gunn & Leventhal, 2000). The latter turns envious and perceives themselves negatively. These feelings of inferiority become coupled with dissatisfaction, anger and frustration which acts as the driving force behind criminal activities against the successful individuals. Contagion theory also referred to as epidemics is the fifth theoretical perspective. According to Sharkey, Jill, Sander, Janay & Jimerson, Shane (2010), social contagion refers to the adoption of attitudes, aspirations and behaviors of peers who happen to be neighbors. Sometimes the change is so drastic and widespread hence its reference an epidemic theory. The connection between neighborhood disadvantage and delinquency appears to be mediated by peer group behaviors and norms. Peer influence especially among young adults plays a huge role in the adoption of certain behaviors such as drug abuse or the formation of stealing gangs. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: is there a third theoretical perspective? Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: need to clarify throughout your writing that the theoretical perspectives are from these authors Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: need to provide a developed analysis of the source Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: need to analyze each article's findings

Nature and Nurture Debate

The nature verses nurture controversy has been applied by researchers aiming to provide explanations for neighborhood effects. Although researchers know the complexity of gene-environment interaction, the nature and nurture debate persists as a way of forming discussions about the causes of behaviors. The question whether criminals are born or made is a simplification of this nature and nurture debate. According to statistics criminal activities continue to rise as new advancements continue to be made. This therefore begs the question, ‘Are criminal minds evolving more superior and smarter genes for criminal activities or is the environment favorable for criminal activities?’ Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: incorrect word Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: who are you referring to? Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: is this a quote from a source

Studies seeking to validate the nature perspective have found correlations between genes and human behavior. An example is a test conducted on 6 and 10 month old infants revealed that infants possess the ability to evaluate individuals based on their social behaviors (Levitt, 2013). This implies the possibility of an occurrence of behavior without learning. This view is largely supported by parents whose family lines have no history of drug abuse or criminal behavior. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: need to develop analysis of the source's findings

On the other hand, nurture subscribers argue that all actions and behaviors are the immediate result of operant conditioning; this is learning to behave in a certain way to specific environment stimulus. The findings of a study conducted on young people in the juvenile justice system, showed that nearly half of them were victims of neglect or abuse during their formative years. One third of them were found to have been victims of violent emotional abuse. 83% of the perpetrators of this violence were discovered to be parents, guardians or siblings (Cauffman, 2004). This research therefore points out a link between an individual’s childhood experiences and their likelihood for engaging in criminal behavior. These revelations can explain some of the mental health problems observed among incarcerated youths such as panic disorder, anxiety disorders and conduct disorders among others. From this point of view the nurture perspective appears to be more plausible. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: incorrect word form Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: clarify

Despite this, nature perspective suggests that genetic factors which form part of the developmental changes experienced in adolescence can be used to expound the nature view. Farrington, Loeber, Stouthamer-Loeber & Van Kammen (1998), state that antisocial behavior is first observed during adolescence. It is characterized by depressive symptoms and withdrawal which are the functions of genetic contributions. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a developmental disorder which starts in childhood and continues to adulthood. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: provide analysis for the article's arguments

Ethnic differences and parental guidance

Ethnic differences and parental guidance are largely apparent among the various racial lines. Among African-Americans for example, physical discipline is acceptable and children view it as a sign of care and good interest from the parents. Again, African-Americans are more of collectivist in that they hold traditions meant to promote the well being of the community and others. Elders are highly valued and respected and act as role models. This becomes a disadvantage if the elders engage in illegal activities as those youths looking upon them come plunging direct into the same vices due to lack of a clear sense of individuality. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: which source are you address in this paragraph? Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: spelling Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: incorrect word form

On the contrary, white parents are more likely to teach individualistic skills and opt for any other form of punishment but physical. When physical punishment is applied to Caucasian children, they have been associated with long term externalizing behavior problems as their psychological interpretation is negative. Pertaining to parent child communication, 42% of Latino adolescents reported learning about sexual health issues from their parents as compared to 37% white adolescents (Erikson, Patricia, Korf, Dirk & Harison, Lana, 2006). African-American adolescents both male and female reported to learning about sexual issues from their mothers and less likely from the father. This could explain why the numbers of violent youths in substance abuse among African-American youths is so high. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: analyze the article's findings

Mental Illness and Criminal Behavior

One of the most highly diagnosed mental illness among youths in juvenile justice systems is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ADHD is a developmental disorder characterized by inappropriate levels of hyperactivity, inattention and impulsivity. This disorder begins in early childhood and continues into adulthood for some people. ADHD is associated with several adverse outcomes in adolescence and adulthood including poor academic performance, mental and physical problems and also substance use disorders. Herrera & McCloskey (2001), state that ADHD is more rampant among males than females however; among incarcerated females it is reportedly higher than those for adolescent females in the community. Impulsivity which is a major characteristic of this disorder when coupled with substance abuse leads youths to committing criminal activities ranging from petty theft to homicides. Peers play a huge role in encouraging substance abuse. The feeling of invincibility among adolescents pushes them to engage in high risk activities such as alcoholism, drug abuse and irresponsible sexual encounters. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: need to focus on source and analyze its findings

Conduct disorder is another mental illness associated with criminal activities. It is characterized by frequent involvement in diverse antisocial activities. It may manifest itself in form of bullying or other aggressive means. Comorbidity is reportedly high among incarcerated youth where they report two or more disorders. Mostly, youths with conduct disorders also have one or more affective disorder. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: need to develop paragraph Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: which source are you address

Stigma in Different Racial Groups

Mental health illnesses are associated with stigma especially among the different racial lines. Most parents wallow in denial for long periods of time denying their children opportunities to receive mental health treatment as soon as possible since the first diagnosis. Racial/ethnic minority parents report more barriers to accessing mental health care as discussed below. Generally, it is estimated that 10 to 20% of children in the United States have significant emotional and behavioral disturbances (Brown, Dedrick, Friedman, Greenbaum, Kutash, Lardieri & Pugh, 1996). What is even more surprising is the fact that the extent of disparities across racial/ethnic groups is very dilapidated as approximately only one in five children with mental health problems receive care. Studies have found out that Hispanic/Latino youth with psychiatric disorders are the least likely to receive treatment as compared to white children. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: source needs analysis

One of the major barriers to mental health treatment for incarcerated youth is the role of societal and institutional racism. Health care providers may change the nature of their services depending on characteristics of the consumer and race/ethnicity is one such major characteristic. For instance, one-third of African- Americans reported that racism was a major problem in health care as compared to 16% of Caucasian respondents. Another reason is that mental health providers interpret youth behaviors differently based on race/ethnicity. This in turn reduces opportunities for minority youths to receive treatment. Studies involving youths in the juvenile justice systems revealed that therapists rated African-American adolescent behaviors as having a criminal orientation while those of white adolescents as having potential mental health concerns (Jenuwine, Lyons, Rawal & Romansky, 2004). Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: provide analysis of source

Due to such kind of treatment majority of minority incarcerated youth become unwilling to continue treatment or seek treatment in the future. Other barriers include beliefs regarding the causes of the disorder. Whereas Caucasians will offer biological explanations African-Americans will more likely offer spiritual explanations. Differences in referral is another barrier as white youths are likely to self refer while minorities are referred to restrictive out of home placements. Stigma associated with assuming that mental illnesses results from personal failures in life acts as another barrier. Another barrier could be fear of the results of a mental health diagnosis especially for parents. Lack of enough knowledge about available mental health services and negative perceptions of treatment are other characteristics. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: which source are yo addressing in the paragraph?

Some recommendations for reducing racial/ethnic disparities and overcoming these barriers include increasing the diversity of health care staff. This can be done by training and recruiting members of particular oppressed racial groups. Secondly, expanding outreach efforts to demystify people about mental health can assist in pulling more youths to seek mental health care (Vincent, Gina, Grisso, Thomas, Terry, Anna & Banks, Steven, 2008). Thirdly, health care workers can be encouraged to involve their patients in the services by explaining reasons for testing and providing opportunities for them to share. There should also be increased accessibility of mental health services especially to juvenile justice system where youths can be diagnosed and cared for to improve their quality of life. Another recommendation is providing avenues for conducting evaluation and research.

Summary of Literature Review

Researchers have identified many racial/ethnic differences of mental health in criminal behaviors among youth in the United States. Studies have revealed the high prevalence rate for mental illnesses which when coupled with disadvantaged neighborhood effects results to criminal behaviors among youth especially those from minority groups. Racial/ethnic differences are clearly evident in how parenting practices are carried out. For instance, although authoritarian parenting rarely affects African-American negatively, it is disastrous when applied to Caucasians. The research also shows barriers to accessing mental health care and offers recommendations to counter the same. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: Consider your sources and evaluate how they can provide support for your review and/or supply alternative evaluation to display the credibility of your review. Remember your audience. Try using one or two the scholarly journal articles to help you evaluate the style, language, and content of your literature review. When revising, don't hesitate to restructure your introduction, layout, and conclusion to present a cohesive and compelling argument. Comment by Olubunmi Oguntolu: And do not forget to fix all mechanics and grammar errors before submitting the final draft. Proofreading is an essential tool. Try reading your writing aloud to help with this task and use the EWC services.

References

Biggs, E. , Rosenblatt, A. ,& Rosenblatt, J. (2000). Criminal Behavior and Emotional Disorder: Comparing Youth Served by the Mental Health and Juvenile Justice Systems. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 27(2), 227-237

Bogg, T. ,& Roberts, B. (2004). Conscientiousness And Health-Related Behaviors: A Meta Analysis of the Leading Behavioral Contributors To Mortality. Psychological Bulletin, 130(6), 887-919

Brooks-Gunn, J. ,& Leventhal, T. (2000). The Neighborhoods They Live In: The Effects of Neighborhood Residence On Child And Adolescent Outcomes. Psychological Bulletin, 126(2), 309-337.

Brown, E. , Dedrick, R. , Friedman, R. , Greenbaum, P. Kutash, K. , Lardieri, S. ,& Pugh, A. (1996). National Adolescent and Child Treatment Study (NACTS): Outcomes for Children with Serious Emotional and Behavioral Disturbance. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 4(3), 130-146

Cauffman, E. (2004). A Statewide Screening of Mental Health Symptoms Among Juvenile Offenders in Detention. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(4), 430-439

Chitsabesan, P. (2006) Mental Health Needs of Young Offenders in Custody and In the Community. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 188(6), 534-540

Erikson, Patricia , Korf, Dirk ,& Harison, Lana. (2006). Different Concepts of Ethnicity in a Cross-Atlantic Study of Violence and Drug Use Among Deviant Youth. European Journal on Criminal Policy & Research(1), pp. 61-78

Farrington, D. , Loeber, R. , Stouthamer-Loeber, M. ,& Van Kammen, W. (1998). Antisocial Behavior & Mental Health Problems: Explanatory Factors in Childhood and Adolescence. Psychology Press.

Herrera, V. ,& McCloskey, L. (2001). Gender Differences in the Risk for Delinquency Among Youth Exposed to Familly Violence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25(8) 1037-1051

Jenuwine, M. , Lyons, J. , Rawal, P. , & Romansky, J. (2004). Racial Differences in the Mental Health Needs and Service Utilization of Youth in the Juvenile Justice System. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 31(3), 242-254.

Levitt, M. (January 01, 2013). Perceptions of nature, nurture and behaviour. Life Sciences, Society and Policy, (9), (1-13). Retrieved from:

http://www.lsspjournal.com/content/pdf/2195-7819-9-13.pdf

Sharkey, Jill , Sander, Janay ,& Jimerson, Shane. (2010). Acculturation and Mental Health: Response to a Culturally-Centered Delinquency Intervention. Journal of Criminal Justice (38), pp. 827-834

Vincent, Gina , Grisso, Thomas , Terry, Anna ,& Banks, Steven. (2008). Sex and Race Differences in Mental Health Symptoms in Juvenile Justice: The MAYSI-2 National Meta-Analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (47), pp. 282-290