Psych- JOURNAL

1. observational learning 

2. vicarious conditioning 

     -observing someone engage in complex sequence of behavior, and being reinforced for doing so. This is the definition of vicarious reinforcement. it is as if I performed the behavior and I was reinforced. 

Bandura proposes Cognitive Meditational Model 

Mediation Model: 

- meditation model contrasts with Skinnerian Black Box 

     - skinner: you produce behavior, reinforced by environment, that maintains the behavior. 

     - skinner: don’t need to know what goes on in black box; epiphenomenal, no causal properties, no necessary 

     - skinner realizes that the stimulus conditions DO matter to what you learn. if the situation 

     -imported stimulus based on evidence that he obtained.

     - stimulus conditions matter EVEN MORE for a punishment, tightly tied together.

BANDURA is arguing that SKINNER is WRONG.

 - what happens in the mind DOES matter.

- its not that you just receive a stimulus as if you haven’t learned anything before!

- the context of what you ALREADY KNOW is very important.

- the interpretive spin you put on what you’ve just seen will impact the behavior you choose to engage in next.

Banduras model looks like this:

B—>E and E—>B

Bandura makes a VERY parsimonious change. He adds “P” to the model for person.

- how does my INTERPRETATION of the framing/environment/my behavior impact the situation?

- CRITICAL IDEA: expectancy.

     -formulate set of expectancies that involve interpretations/beliefs/etc. 

     - most pertinent: there is a CAUSAL linkage, an expectancy, which alters the meaning of this behavior. Changes how I think about this behavior, and then it changes the behavior. 

     - If I believe that I cannot ride a bicycle, it decreases the probability that I will ever get on and try to ride a bicycle. 

     - LOW SELF EFFICACY expectation. 

     - self efficacy is not the same as self-esteem, self-competence, self-confidence, global happiness, capability, etc. 

     - self efficacy is about a specific behavior and regards expectancy of CAN or CANNOT do the behavior. 

     - the expectancy that I CAN do the behavior it equivalent to my having done the behavior and gotten reinforced for the behavior, this would increase the probability of the behavior happening again. 

     - now, THIS FICTION that I just MADE UP is equivalent to having done this thing and it being reinforced. 

          - if I believe I can do it, i am more likely to try to do it. 

          - the act of having done it AT ALL increases my expectation that I could do it again 

          - engaging in the behavior increases self efficacy, which is SELF REINFORCING 

          - if I ‘can’t’ engage in the behavior, this  feeds into my low self efficacy expectation, decreasing the probability of the behavior 

Another big story: what about the environment?

Its essentially the same basic story. 

- If I believe the reinforcers exists in the environment, then I am MORE LIKELY to engage in the behavior I believe will lead to that reinforcer. 

- If I believe I can get an A and I study really hard in a particular way, then I will study since that is my expectancy. 

OUTCOME EXPECTANCY: 

Watch someone else burglarize a house: 

Vicariously conditioned +outcome expectancy increased. 

P(B)=F(Self Efficacy Expectation*Outcome Expectancy(behavior and reinforcement)

Turns out there is a little bit more than this. 

EXAMPLE: 

phobia of spiders

If self efficacy expectation about being able to approach spider DOES NOT Increase by virtue of intervention, suddenly, even though you changed their behavior in the treatment, their behavior will not ultimately be changed. 

- the self efficacy IS the core of the issue. Just changing the behavior in the simplest form won’t be enough. 

- low self-efficacy expectations about being able to do those behaviors and low outcome expectations about being able to achieve outcomes by engaging in that behavior. 

     - do intervention with women/minorities 

          -Jacklyn Eccles 

     - yes, it really matters! changing efficacy expectation/outcome expectations—> both of these are a GOOD thing. 

     - however, lots of people will not be impacted by the intervention, even if outcome expectancy and self-efficacy improved! 

     - ANOTHER variable needed to be added to this question! 

     - OUTCOME VALUE— to what extent do I VALUE the outcome?

     - if the intervention does not alter, the value i ascribe to attaining the outcome, then we have a big problem. That is a lot harder to do!!

     - by now, lots of research has replicated this finding. 

     - need to be able to measure outcome value, and need to find a way that it does not feel to the subject that they are paying a tremendous price. 

ABC of Cog-behavioral assessment (post Bandura). Triggering cues might now be a set of thoughts (cognitions)

What is the best tool to help tackle a phobia according to Bandura?

     - Modeling: bumps up self-efficacy by learning from observation

     - Now, you need to GIVE IT A WHIRL. 

     - Have to find the increments that will work and not send the  person into a total panic 

     - PARTICIPANT MODELING, or modeling with guided participation 

      Freud: symptom substitution. If I change your behavior, now you are supposed to acquire other symptoms that will now harm you because i have no, according to freud, treated the cause of the problem which is the festering psychosexual conflict. 

     - little evidence to support this!!

Did not DO what I said I was going to do!!

3 ways of being abnormal: 

1. X you want to do, and you don’t know how 

     -model behavior/teach pt how to do the behavior/have them practice

2. X you want to do, DO know how, but you can’t/won’t/don’t 

     -change reinforcement contingencies in the environment or in your OWN MIND.   

3. Y you don’t want to do/need to stop, but you keep doing it. 

     - unlearn the behavior

               - punish it? No. 

                - replace the behavior with a better one, make sure contingencies allow for practice of new behavior. 

Dr. Susan Andersen 

Personality Psychology 

Office Hours: Monday 3pm-5pm, 403 Meyer 

What is Personality? What do we mean when we refer to personality with regard to the academic discipline of psychology and the way that lay people speak about psychology. 

When we talk about personality in the academic sense, we don’t mean the conventional meaning. WE are not referring to anything valenced. 

Personality: What am I like as a person? Am I the same person now that I was in 9th grade?

Values, beliefs, what Ive been exposed to, lots of things have changed. 

Are these deep and profound changes? Does it mean that I had one personality before, and a different personality now?

Do I look like the same person, do I feel like the same person in this class as I do at a romantic dinner with someone I love? Am I acting the same was as I would at a party? What if I were at a family gathering? 

Variability in 1. How I feel 2. How I think 3. How I behave 4. what I want 

Some people study personality as if it is a FIXED entity. As a researcher, the goal is to identify what are the FIXED characteristics that one has that define one across situations and across most of your life. This is an interesting question to assume that there is a stable tendency that ought not be variable. 

But what about CHANGES OVER TIME? Then, is this the same as developmental psychology?

A lot of the early clinical theorists (eg. Freud), most of those people are writing about things experienced in early childhood and how those influence who we are right at this moment. Well, then there is an overlap with abnormal psychology. 

Variability Across situations: how one varies across situational circumstance. Is this like social psychology? Yes. Personality psychology has a lot in common with Social Psychology. 

First half of course: 

Freud, Neo-Freudians, Behaviors, Cognitive Behaviorists, Existential Folks, etc.

Second half of course: Personality as a research domain

In order to do the latter portion of things, what we are doing is not talking about theories of human nature, but more isolated mini-theories

3 SOURCES of INFORMATION:

1. Textbook

2. Lectures

3. Set of readings that are posted on Classes (not assigned until later in the course)

Need to take good, careful, studiable notes.

FREUD:

Influential way of thinking about personality: idea that people DO NOT HAVE CONTROL over anything about yourself. 

You are driven by forces that are unconscious, not appealing, you know nothing about them, and even if you did you could do nothing about this. Your development is uncontrollable. 

- this is the nub of freudian theory. These are defined primarily by infantile sexual urges  and the like, and they are pushing you in a particular direction, as they are trying to be released. As you go through development, you acquire barriers against those forces that lead to internal conflict. Ultimately, your self and life is defined by INTERNAL Psychosexual conflict about urges that are utterly and completely unacceptable, about which you know almost nothing. 

Main point: you are determined by the inner surge of unconcious, instinctual pressure. 

BEHAVIORISM (SKINNER, PAVLOV):

Everything about you is determined by your environment. 

Tabula Rasa: you are a blank slate and influences from the environment will shape you and your tendencies in ways in which you have little or no control. 

FREUD and BEHAVIORISM are both arguing that you are completed determined. 

- Freud and behaviorists are both advocates of determinism over free will 

- In 50’s and 60’s, we encounter rebellion against this thread. At this time, the only choice was either psychoanalysis (no science) or behaviorism (studying animals only)… 

THIRD WAVE: Humanistic/Existential

What about agency? Desire? Choice? Self directed behavior? Options? 

- what these folks want to argue is that one of the most important parts of human existence is for choice, intention, and planning 

- THE THIRD WAVE: the humanistic psychologists (a subset of these are existential psychologists)

this is the set of people who want to restore human ability for self regulation 

- ex. adhere to plan despite temptation 

ASSUMPTIONS OF EACH THEORY: MOTIVATION

1. Vary greatly with regard to their attitude to MOTIVATION

a. what fundamental human needs are

b. what fundamental human drives are 

·      Freud: drive for sexual gratification/release 

·      Behaviorists: Refuse to assume anything about motivation, but in the end they assume a few things. 

·      Humanists: end up making a lot of assumptions 

FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN NEEDS 

1. Connection- warmth, tenderness, belonging 

Evidence: human beings are highly responsive to an absence of parenting, touching, as they are growing up. Harry Harlow studies: monkeys that were separated from their mothers. Two choices: soft mommy monkey vs. wirey monkey with a bottle that can feed them. Results: monkey babies preferred the soft monkey and gravitated to cuddling instead of feeding. Just being able to feed yourself is not enough. 

2. Autonomy- freedom, lack of constraint, 

Evidence 1: Intrinsic Motivation:

Kids that are already performing a particular task, and then someone comes along to give you an external reward for a task you are already doing. When rewards are removed, you are no longer pursuing the task as much, you diminish the degree to which you are pursuing the task, you will report less interest and excitement about the task. 

If I provide you with reinforcement or reward that follows upon a behavior, and we have other evidence that it is rewarding for you, when you I provide it to you about a behavior you are already doing, it will have the opposite effect than what is predicted. It looks like there is intrinsic motivation that REALLY MATTERS. 

Evidence 2: Reactance (Jack Brehm): 

If someone tells you that you will not be able to do something, and there is prohibition, there is a tweak that you will want to do that thing even if you didn’t want to do it before. 

3. Control over environment, control over own actions, mastery, competence in a domain 

Evidence: Learned Helplessness 

If you are repeatedly exposed to circumstances or cues or feedback that say to you that your actions are irrelevant, then this causes a huge problem for human beings. If I am doing this thing repeatedly in order to get a food pellet, or escape a cage, and then no matter what I do, it makes no difference, I will learn to stop trying. This is learned helplessness. 

When test for consequences of behavior, emotional state, concentration, the organism will simply give up. The behavior will go away, and it will be as if the only reason to do this thing is to gain whatever mastery or control in that environment might be. 

4. Comprehension of what is happening around us and within us. Sense of meaning in life, situating it in a broader context. 

- exigency to make meaning of a terrible loss, to come to terms with what your life is about or will be about now that a trauma or negative experience has occurred. 

Every single cognitive or cognitive behavioral model assumes that what the mind is trying to do is bring together the stimuli that it is encountering into a meaningful, coherent whole. The mind is busy filling in the blanks in what it sees using prior knowledge: make sense of what is out there in terms of what you already know. Make meaning from an otherwise meaningLESS set of stimuli. 

Evidence: Terror Management Theory 

Each one of us holds particular kinds of world views in which we are deeply invested (political.cultural/societal/artistic)— what reality is, what constitutes something great or bad. When a threatening force comes along, and someone insults an aspect of your identity, the response of a person is NOT to just fall down, but to bolster the world view. Internally, I am internally holding more tightly to it than I was before. When meaning is challenged, people desperately hold on to it. 

5.Security or Safety 

A sense that I will be ok, or that this is going to be ok. Being able to feel that one is protected and OK so that you are not riveted by anxiety at every moment of existence. there are a million theories in psychology. 

1. Ego defensive biases 

2. Self enhancement tendencies- say something that is a  threat to me or mine, then i am not only angry at you for insulting my mother, but I will also puff my mother up more than I ever have in response to criticism. 

One of the things to do: gauge theories in terms of WHAT THEY ASSUMED about each one of these things. 

Feel for OVERALL TOPICS: 

mini-theories in various domains

How do people make sense of other peoples in their environment? Use mental assumptions and categories to make interpretations about people. 

Social Cognition is about how do I look at you, your behavior, and what you are doing and INTERPRET it. Do I take into account the situation? When do I do it, how do i do it? 

Attribution Theory: how do i make sense of you, how do you make sense of me, how do i make sense of myself? Prior knowledge is key here. 

Nature of the Self: where does our sense of self come from? what is our sense of self? what is the source of believing that I have certain characteristics and not others? 

General Area of Mood and emotion as it relates to cognition, memory: Does your mood affect the nature of your memory? Does it effect what you can retrieve from your recent past or your long ago past? Does it effect how you make sense of an remember new information? How does cognition affect emotion?

Anxiety and Stress, Anxiety Disorders, and Depression. What is depression, where does it come from? How is it related to cognition and emotion? What are its impacts on behavior? How can it be remediated?

when you manage to effectively regulate yourself, and develop mastery over these various kinds of emotional vicissitudes, and you manage to control your emotions, WHAT IS IT THAT YOU ARE DOING?

Psychological Defense 

Aggression 

Empathy 

Two exams, both are multiple choice 

Final Exam IS CUMULATIVE. 

There is also a take home exam, which will be after the in class mid-term, that will allow you to boost your performance relative to feeling disappointed with multiple choice exam. 

WHAT HAVE I LEARNED from the textbook and what have I learned from lecture, and what have I learned from the readings?

- need to remember that these are three semi-independent sources of information, and take them all into account. 

My experience in my own life, the way the world works, products and rituals in society. Connect what we are learning about with parts of our own experience. 

Kind of experiential learning in the context of the recitations 

Think of a time when there was someone around you that was really suffering in some way, and where you might have chosen to do something. What was that moment? and what was I feeling while I was watching this or indirectl 

In the 50s, you could either go into clinical psych and study freud, or you could go into experimental psychology, and that meant studying animal behavior. 

Humanistic Psychologists: 

Human Choice, Human Purpose, the Idea that you might have a goal, you might have a plan. If you have a goal and a plan to achieve that goal, you will orient your life with that goal that you care very deeply about. 

Even though you are tempted by the things that people pop up, somehow the purpose notion, which is nothing but a fiction (internal state) 

The idea that you might be capable of being in hot pursuit of some set of goals, aims, dreams, wishes and that you might use that to navigate your own life— this idea was COMPLETELY absent from psychology until the ‘new wave’ folks came along. 

Primary thing they want to be talking about IS phenomenology. 

Phenomenology: idea that you have conscious ideas, perceptions, interpretations of reality, characterizations of reality, and these ARE the reality that you are responding to 

reality did not have a power of its own

what’s really crucial are the conscious contents you come to bear on reality, the categories you apply, the idea that this is where the action is in human behavior, that was a VERY strange idea. 

Abe Maslow 

Carl Rogers

Existentialists 

All agreed on the idea that how people construe and make sense of what is around them is important. 

What’s the story with humanistic psychology? What are they doing beyond being phenomenological?

As you are being socialized by everyone in your life, you become progressively OUT OF TOUCH with your feelings, which is to say out of touch with yourself and who you are because you are BUSY enacting CULTURAL/FAMILIAL norms that you have been trained to engage in. 

Rogers: 

stereotype that he only did psychotherapy, but actually he proposed a WHOLE THEORY of personality. 

Both were interested in psychologically well- how does one get from normal to extraordinary?

Puzzle 1: Carl Rogers proposed that there are certain circumstances under which the likelihood is MUCH higher that you will be able to be exceptional. conditions under which you will be able to thrive. 

1a. what are these conditions?

1b.  what happens to the nature of the mind that allows that better functioning to occur?

1a’. What are the circumstances under which you suffer? 

1b’. What does that imply about the nature of the mind that sets the stage for suffering?

Despite the stereotype that the main thing Roger’s said was something silly about psychotherapy, 

Rogers DID propose that there is something especially important in treatment that really matter. 

2a.  What is that one thing?

2b. What if Carl Rogers was right about that one thing that is the causal curative property in therapy?

     - this particular thing in psychotherapy does NOT require a great deal of training. It does not require extensive amounts of school. those things, he argues, can make you an even WORSE therapist. 

Humanistic approaches, which are very tender and kind in nature, are highly stereotyped. These are lots of ways it has played out to break through the barriers of our self imposed restrictions. 

Existentialism: 

Existential approaches are NOT soft like Humanistic approaches. 

they are pointing to some of the more difficult aspects of life, such as death, dying. The shortness of the little visit that we pay to this planet. 

Probability is we probably have about 60 years ahead. The idea of death as NOT front and center leads to certain kinds of things. 

Existential approaches are VERY oriented toward helping a person face what actually this life consists of. ITs shortness, and therefore, the exigencies (demands/requirements) of one to LIVE NOW. 

Each moment of what you choose is expensive, it has consequences.Certain choices can cost you everything else. 

Choosing IS intense. The existential folks are not interested in pretending that IT IS OTHERWISE. They want each person to see that actually, these are your choices and YOU ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THEM, for having made them, for the consequences of them, etc. A lot people spend a great deal of time blaming their parents for everything that they are doing. 

There are CHOICES, they really are. There is no HAVE TO in this model. 

     - this is just a fiction. 

If you don’t want to do it, do something else. 

Existential therapy is focused on taking responsibility and making ‘the hard choice.'

Existentialism grew up as a philosophical framework that had a large impact on MANY fields, including psychology. 

     - deconstructionism 

Existentialism: 

     - pre and post WWII

     - shocking idea of how readily people can shut themselves off to the agony/suffering/death/murder/degradation of other human beings 

     - there is musis, art, history, etc. 

     - something happened, but people were able to look right at another human being who was either dead or dying, and have NO RESPONSE. 

     - people took no action, but could be internally suffering—> - OR they looked at it directly, and felt no emotions. 

Idea in existentialism: all of us are capable of shutting ourselves off. 

     - we shut out people’s suffering and pretend it is not happening

     - ex: walking by homeless people on the street. 

One should be engaged with existence, because it is ripped away. 

the point is NOT to say what you should/shouldn’t do. 

POINT: life is ephemeral, not going to continue, and it has a vulnerable quality, and it is changing all the time, and it is going to KEEP changing. 

human capability to become a monster. 

Despite the fact that we can make up, and in our societies and cultures there may be an understanding that there is a god, and that god is represented by a religious framework. 

Persona: 

Sartre/Heidegger 

Despite the fact that we make assumptions about the idea that there is someone who has direct access to the truth, existentialism makes the assumption that: 

1. there is no absolute truth 

2. there is no truth about how you must/should behave, think, feel

3. if you face this, it is petrifying. 

     - who do I ask? there is no one to ask. 

4. we are all, relatively pathetic, creatures with big brains who need to make sense of life, must find a way of grasping what is going on

     - so if there is no truth, that is SCARY. 

     - i have to figure it out myself? YES. and you have to act      upon it. It if your job to take responsibility for what you chose to be/feel/think. 

     - anxiety associated with not knowing

Sartre: to escape freedom, escape the job of needing to figure out what is real enough to you, and how to live. temptation to ESCAPE is gargantuan. To escape this, you throw yourself into something: religion/work/relationship= bad faith. THIS is how people cut themselves off from their own humanity, which requires that we use the brain that we have and decide what we believe, and to consciously/critically evaluate that which is in front of us.

If I do look at this ideology, and if I consciously and critically evaluate it, and I decide I agree with, for example, nazi ideology, one could argue, that within this framework, that is ok/explainable/understandable. One could argue that this framework gives the impression that that is ok.

If there is not absolute truth, everything is nothing, and anything goes!

when one wants to import this stuff in psychology, #1 GETS ALTERED. 

Rollo May: 

1A: humans are born with empathy, empathic capacity that it is your ability to choose 

B: No absolute Truth, but there is absolute truth== you are born with the capacity for empathy. 

C: though you face the idea of not knowing how to formulate a moral framework, and that is scary. 

D: because you have inherent sense of empathy, I can feel what kind of pain you ARE IN, or WOULD BE IN if I treated you as a cockroach. 

E: If my beating heart tells me that pain/embarassment/subjugation would be agony for you, than such a religious framework cannot stand. By violating your humanity, I violate my OWN humanity. 

Details: 

Born with a certain degree of existential anxiety

Ontological anxiety- anxiety about future choices.  recognize variety of version of yourself that you might be able to come, and that you might attain at least a modicum of happiness in a variety of all these different versions of yourself. I gotta look at this, and I actually have to come of with WHAT MATTERS TO ME IN THIS SHORT, LITTLE EXISTENCE. 

USE MY MIND

USE MY EMPATHY. 

- NOT fear of making the wrong choice.

- tendency to engage in SHRINKING of consciousness  (similar to bad faith) 

     - rolling along on automatic, quasi comatose, and at some point, you WAKE up and you go, Oh my god! what have i been doing, how did I get here, and as you do that you have: 

- ONTOLOGICAL GUILT: look backward at your life, and say what have i been doing? How did all of this happen? All thing time has gone by and its been as if I’ve been asleep. Realization sinks in that THOSE WERE MY CHOICES and what I did each time was abrogate my responsibility to choose, gave it away to someone else so that I could choose not to choose. 

- looking at your failure to act upon the DEMANDS of what is required to be a human being. Being a human is not a fact, but a task to remain human. 

     - the devices create a problem for this TOO! 

Paradox: I am not going to hand you the answer, you are going to have to figure it out. 

Clarifications: 

From the book: 

When you are a tiny infant, when you are in the oral stage, until the beginning of the 2-3 period, one thing that is going on is that whoever you are, if you are a boy or a girl, the point is that you are “identified” with the mom. 

Term that Freud used for that ends up to be important-

Anaclitic identification: primordial, simple process whereby the infant cannot distinguish the parenting figure from itself. The infant feels all one with the mom. 

In Anaclitic Identification- both girls and boy are taking satisfaction from interchange with mom. In oral stage, this is infant gratification. Gain psychosexual gratification regardless of physical gender. This is important because it specifies ways in which the development of boys is complicated, which is different than for girls. 

For boys: gaining satisfaction, but there is also a merging between her and the boy because there is no merging. The external world cannot be separated from the internal world. When boys arrive to anal phase, they develop an ego, and then in the phallic stage, this process becomes the Oedipal complex (castration anxiety) and as a boy you cannot possess your mother sexually, because you are too small, too weak, and there are competitors for that position. Instead of merging, you switch your identification to be with your father (the aggressor). This step allows formation of the super-ego, but also defines what you aspire to as a young boy and what you fear. 

In phallic stage, switches identification to opposite sex antagonist in order to possess the mom indirectly, symbolically, by becoming the kind of man who could possess her. The satisfaction is still associated with mom, but the identication of who I am becomes different. 

For the GIRL: 

Anaclitic Identification

Penis Envy, want to possess the father. Continues to identify with mom, but in a much more conflict filled way. 

Then, pass through anal stage, develop ego: have an ego- I am too small, I am too miniature, and there is a major competitor. Tension and Anxiety about being punished. In the end, you want to possess your father sexually, but you identify with the aggressor (the mom) and you develop a superego so that you become, in principle, the kind of person, who your father could have sex with so that you could become impregnated, and have a son, and then possess a penis of your own. 

Libido directed toward a different object. 

Second Clarification: 

Drive-Structure Model= Freudian Theory (Second iteration)

Tri-partite model of the mind: Id, Ego, Superego. 

all the structures come from drive. Drive is libido. Libido is infantile psychosexual instinct. 

Psychosexual conflict that is very intense, and huge pressures (including reality) are all pushing on the ego. The ego is shoved, crushed, and ordered around. The ego is trying to come up with compromised position which all of the forces will hate because they all want it their way and no other way. The only thing you will ever have is the inadequate, compromised position. Id gets a bit, superego gets a bit, and reality gets a bit. 

Conflict, pressure, and tension define Identity. It is all virtually totally unconscious. 

What is psychic system doing?

Because libido is the strongest force, means that you are seeking gratification and you are not going to get it in its direct form. 

In the end, psychic system is driving you toward gratification. There will be some degree of gratification. One way or another, you will find a compromised position that gives you the opportunity to inadequately gratify these instincts. Once there is gratification, tension is reduced. 

Contradiction in the model: 

Constancy Principle: psychic system aims to bring all tension to 0. (tension reduction)

What is the circumstance in which you will have the least tension? Death. 

Thantos: the death instinct. He mentions it, but he never talks about it again. 

Critiques begin to grate on him after 1910, and he starts trying to answer the critiques. (Accommodation phase, trying to response to critics). In the end, he never changes the tripartite model, it never changes. He DOES make some assumptions around the edges that sound like he is starting to change it, but he never does. 

Civilization’s Discontents: 

What is one of the reasons that psychological defense can be problematic?

Makes it difficult to engage with anything external to you because defense mechanisms require psychic energy to MAINTAIN. 

Ego is using psychic energy to engage in defense mechanisms, which makes it difficult to engage with reality. Ego cannot engage with reality. 

However, it is inevitable that you will engage in some defense mechanisms. 

Biological Drive causes libido, but also creates civilization. The products you produce are the result. Culture is created from drive, but so is defense mechanisms. He came to the understanding in part by trying to fight of Adler and Jung who wanted to take reality into account much more than he ever wanted to. When libido creates society, it creates niches within which you can express your impulses in a somewhat less sullied way, albeit compromised, but society provides 1. marriage 2. war (allows killing). Civilization= socially validated expression or otherwise restricted impulses. more defenses are operating, the more screwed up you are going to be. 

Sublimation: Express instincts through societal vehicles, and it looks like a defense mechanism, except that it does not take psychic energy to maintain. Rather, society provides you with all of that stuff. 

Freud concedes that there is one thing that can, sort of, modify drive, can modify defensive maneuver. If expressing drive in the context of war, or in the context of marriage, or in the workplace, this does not require psychic energy to maintain. This is a response 

Engaging with reality in a way that matters—> Reality principle. 

Need to know psychological defense mechanisms and how they function. 

Repression- the most basic defense mechanism. 

Why? 

completely subconscious 

ALL defense mechanisms rely upon repression. 

The other defense mechanisms have the result of making a biological, instinctual story hidden from awareness and ensuring distorted awareness 

Projection: urge to have sex with my mother, and now I accuse my brother of wanting to have sex with my mother. Imply that I don’t have it—> shove it away from my own awareness. 

Denial- even easier than repression. Denial is one of the first thing that kids do out loud. 

Very irrational, but clearly emerges early. 

Denial requires that there is  a notion in consciousness that I should not have. There has to be some little bit of awareness of something, but it will not be awareness directly of libidinous impulse. 

Displacement: Have a libidinous urge, and because that would be too unacceptable for you to be aware of, you enact that urge toward someone or something else. Kick the dog (instead of your boss). Fighting off castration effort of your father, and you beat up your son. 

For a freudian shrink, whatever it is that you are saying, doing, feeling, saying that you are feeling, expressing,  is a disguised representation of psychosexual conflict which is producing your symptoms. I use your behavior as a sign of your underlying, unconscious person. Job is to look at manifestation and infer what is the underlying, invisible psychosexual conflict at the heart of these symptoms and signs. Therefore, if you are expressing these things, and if I think this is a disguised manifestation of infantile psychosexual experience. When I eventually offer you this story, you reject it. RESISTANCE- resisting what I consider to be a fact. The more the patient resists, the more sure the therapist can be about the fact that they are touching on a sensitive story.

Job of analyst is to make inference about underlying conflict that produced the signs and symptoms. 

From Last Lecture: 

under or over gratification leads to fixation OR partial fixation. 

ex: undergratification at oral stage. You are very needy, and your oral gratification is not satisfying enough. This causes fixation at the oral stage. 

Psychosexual conflict that is profound AND repressed, and it is like a ticking time bomb, or virus, waiting to infect you. Like a disease entity. Waiting for proper conditions to completely take over your psyche. 

Originally, revealed with no symptoms, dormant. 

Then, something happens.

· reality 

· experiential response (bad trip)

· causes regression to the way of handling things, experiencing conflict the way you did in the oral stage. 

· produces symptoms.

Freud’s notion of depression: 

In order to become clinically depressed, you are fixated at the oral stage. 

This is caused by over or under regression at the oral stage. 

What leads to symptoms?

- loss of someone (a parent, maybe) to death

     - maybe its divorce, lose a job, fail a course, breakup 

     - could also just be subjective experience of having lost something 

          - self respect, esteem, 

- the loss will precipitate regression back to the oral stage. 

- what am I regressing to?

     - oral stage

     - psychosexual conflict at that stage 

     - about the issue of oral gratification, having something or someone around i can   

        gain oral gratification 

     - cathected- attach libidinous energy to that object 

          - allows for libidinous gratification in the oral stage 

     - likely to involve anaclitic identification 

          - going to be abandoned, not have everything you need 

          - when she comes back, you might be smothered. 

          - either a total explosion of anxiety, or you will defect to a primitive mental         

          maneuver- form mental image of the cathected object (mom or pinky). Can use                   

          the mental image, which is slightly soothing. I am still having fish, but I have         

          gained some degree of satisfaction by doing this. 

ex: lost brother to death. Response: form a mental image of my brother as a self-soothing story. It will be quasi-gratifying. 

I am pissed at my brother for leaving me!! 

When I am angry with my brother, this is conundrum, because my brother is inside me. 

This becomes anger directed toward the self—> depression. 

Depression is ANGER directed towards the self. 

This is a form of FIXATION. 

This is the theory of the MAJOR DISORDERS: 

Under/over gratification—> Fixation—> Loss (actual or perceived) —> Regression—> Mental Disorder 

Partial Fixation—> Personality Disorders (depends on the kind of 

Low level, but painful, or annoying, conflict that ends up influencing your whole personality in subtle, relatively small ways. Regression 

Oral- taking in, sucking, acquiring, keeping, not having enough, concerns about having too much, clinging, wanting more, needing more

     - dependent personality disorder (highly needy)

              - trouble with separation, issues surrounding trust 

Anal- triad- control, cleanliness, orderliness 

     - compulsive personality disorder, whole life is defined by orderliness (at a low level)

Phallic- conflicts concerning masculinity and femininity, retreat out of fear 

     - narcissism- proving virility, or succumbing to the fact that you are less                than, and for the woman I am the Madonna, tension and conflict about how to want attention and also be a perfect marrying mom and a seductress. 

     - avoidant personality disorder

Need to be able to RECALL the information even though the test is multiple choice. Need to know the information back and front. Don’t cram. 

Be attentive to object relations people in the book!!

Kohut- text explains as much as you will need to know. 

Same with behaviorism: smaller experiments that will not be covered in lecture. 

Adler: Heavily focused on reality 

Interested in mastery/power 

Security 

Organ Inferiority: 

Completely dependent when you are born 

physiologically inferior at time of birth to everything around you 

you can tell that children want to be better, they want to gain mastery because they talk about “big boy” behavior and puffing themselves up as well as becoming better at things. 

First person to examine birth order. When you are younger, you will feel more inferior to your older siblings. You are surrounded by more people who are better than you, but similar to you in age. The comparison will be that you are just even more inferior. 

If you are a younger child and your sibling is running for snacks, and your sibling knocks you out of the way, you will immediately think this person is so much better than me. This can lead to INFERIORITY COMPLEX. I am less capable of doing things than these people are. When oldest, you are primarily surrounded by caregivers only. 

Striving for COMPETENCY OVER ENVIRONMENT. 

Reminder: Jung’s shadow aspect—> side of yourself that you reject/don’t accept. 

Masculine/Feminine thing—> 

Adler start from a place of masculinity, but moves to focusing on MASTERY. 

Social Relatedness- need a degree of connected with other people in order to aid you in mastering your environment. Not all going to be physically the best, emotionally, intellectually the best, but we can compensate by befriending other people with strengths. 

Goals: He is really focused on human suffering, what causes it. 

- is it because you have goals that are unrealistic? 

- or, are goals too easily attainable? Not satisfying? 

Is fixation over gratification or under gratification in a certain stage? It can be caused by EITHER. 

With Goals: Fictional Finalist 

- act as if the goals are accomplished, need to envision what it would be like to accomplish that goal

- feeling as if I have accomplished that goal

     - need to imagine process of completing the goal 

     -imagine all steps you can go through to get an A in the class

     - by this amount before the test, I am going to have to have reviewed a certain amount of material. 

     - if its INCREDIBLY out of your reach, you may not even imagine doing it. 

     - just like under/over gratification (FREUD), neuroses come from having unrealistic life goals, or unrealistic strategies for achieving the goals 

ALFRED ADLER: A little vagary. 

Using same terminology completely differently 

or coming up with own theories 

SULLIVAN: 

1. Satisfaction 

     1a. expression 

     1b. integration tendencies 

2. Security/Safety 

you feel happy when your significant other is HAPPY. What this person does, how you feel, what you were doing when you felt that. You feel because they are feeling. 

In doing this, you acquire a sense of self. A sense of good/bad. 

- what I do that makes this person happy

- what I do that makes this person sad

- when mom is happy, I am happy. This is the good mom. 

- bad mom—> angry and upset, that makes me angry and upset, that’s the part of me that is bad. 

     -log into memory about bad me, brings out bad mom. 

- Not me: abusive parent who is horrible to you, but is angry at you for no reason, makes you feel bad about yourself. You don’t know anything beyond the contingency in the prototaxic phase

Personifications: 

a bundle of memories of good mom/bad mom 

Connect what you are learning to a person, and you form CONTINGENCIES—> 

bad mom= bundle of knowledge of what bad mom looks like, what bad mom looks like

Dynamisms: 

how I elicit the personification I am familiar with 

about the relationship between the significant other and the self. 

Self-System: The not me is not part of the self system. I am not aware of it. 

THE NOT ME: 

where does it come from?

· Stuff that makes you feel bad, but separates itself from the ‘bad me’ 

· Example: Come home crying, feeling sad, feeling like a mess, got beat up, hate everything. Instead of mom soothing you, she says you are weak and dumb, not masculine, who don’t you have a spine, and then you get weak.

· Take all these feelings of inadequacy and you push them into the 'not me’ because of the traumatic experience. 

· The slapping across the face is that it actually has to be traumatic. Not just about meanness. 

· When I am inadequate, this is the mom I get, and this is horrible. I am going to shove this out of my awareness. 

where does it go? 

- shoved into unconcious, shoved out of self-system in terms of AWARENESS 

How does it form who I am?

I am largely defined by what is NOT ME since the not me is traumatic. 

This is sort of like REACTION FORMATION—> reflect opposite in a very EXTREME way. 

Security Operations: Sullivan’s word that is analogous to Defense Mechanisms

- basically, directs attention so that you see things that are more likely to keep in line the view of  yourself that will keep you that way. You are more likely to pay attention to the moments in which you are exemplifying the characteristics of yourself you identify with, so you ignore aspects of yourself that are maybe part of your bad me. 

Security operations cherry pick for you parts of  yourself. 

You have as many personalities as you do significant others. 

Projection vs. Displacement: 

Projection: I’m not angry, you’re angry. 

displacement: I’m angry at you, so I am going to kick this dog, I’m angry. 

     - Displacement is PART of TRANSFERENCE. 

Prototaxic, Parataxic, Syntaxic 

Prototaxic: Raw feel of life, no adult thoughts. There is not a lot conscious. 

You are a lot of feelings- raw feelings and responses to them. 

Parataxic: 

· babytalk and responsiveness from caregiver. 

· Trying to verbally communicate things about your environment, and  your internal states. 

· Formulating IDIOSYNCRATIC expressions, pretty much only my primary caregiver can understand me. 

· nanny, dad sibling. people who spend a lot of time with you, your significant others. 

· have some degree of consciousness about it. 

· this is helpful in some way.

Syntaxic 

Now I can talk. other people can understand me. 

CONSENSUAL VALIDATION: someone responds to you. 

When I get older and better at things, I acquire consciousness. 

Difference from Freud: NOT acquiring consciousness. 

3 stages= 3 ways of experiencing the world. These are MODALITIES, not actually stages, but capabilities of sensing and communicating. 

Parataxic Distortion: Sullivan’s conception of transference. 

Self connected in memory with A specific SIGNIFICANT OTHER

SEE new person as if they are your significant other, then you will take your fund of knowledge and SUPERIMPOSE it on to this other person. 

Freud thinks you are walking around doing this all the time. 

Oh, you look like my sister, sound like my sister, etc. 

Relationship you have with anyone close to you is in play and you will experience it with other people when that ‘schema is activated’ 

Illusory two person group: place notion of your sister onto this other person

Results in relationship dynamics that will probably mirror those that you have with your sister. 

Therapy: 

take approach of humility 

Freud: Resistance 

observing participants, and participant observation. 

But, like Freud, want to gain insight into relationship dynamics rather than psychosexual urges. 

LEARNING: 

Klein 

Bowlby - 

Ainsworth - the strange situation. 

mom walks out of the room, what happens to kid

3 types of attachment 

how translates to adulthood. 

Kohut 

How is Sullivan different from Freud? 

More interested in emotions 

More interested in reality 

Sullivan did not talk so much about consciousness—> just avoided it. 

Sullivan ignores the libido. No psychosexual urge. Not a core part of personality. 

Sullivan much more interested in 

The ID- two kinds of instincts 

Life Instincts- Eros 

drives and passions that push for reproduction, survival 

Libido- finite amount of energy within each person 

Death Instincts- Thanatos 

human desire to return to the inanimate state 

humans are driven by death instincts- combination of desire to die and knowledge that we will eventually die. 

Pleasure principle: the drive of the Id to release unwanted tension regardless of the consequences. 

Primary Process Thinking: To discharge tension, the id forms an internal image of the desired object. This is the purpose of dreams. this is not enough to soothe the Id and release tension, giving rise to the EGO

EGO: Reality, Reason, and Order 

Ego- direct outgrowth of the ID. 

· reality testing 

· making decisions about various courses of action



      Each of the structures of the mind is fueled by/created by drive (psychosexual instinct). That is why those structures characterize your entire personality.

      Born with drive.

      Ages 0-2: Id, primary process thinking, fundamental human motivation is sexuality, libido. Id is the repository of psycho sexual of earth. Primary Process thinking is the modality of thinking of the id and it is illogical, irrational, and not linear. Jumble of symbolic concerns and wishes towards achieving psychosexual gratification, referred to as the pleasure principle. Oral Stage, these urges migrate from part of the body to another part of the body to another part, etc. Sense of pleasure is located in and around the mouth. This is not matured sexual pleasure but it does have to do with build up of tension and release. Teething, it’s painful but they also like it. Pleasure mixed with a bit of pain.

      Ages 2-3: Libidinous instinct moves towards the anal cavity. Child is going to take pleasure in the build up of tension and release of feces/fart etc. Anal stage. Somewhere during this period, there is going to be a battle you are going to lose (potty training). You are not going to be able to defecate where you’d like. You are going to acquire the ability of regulating when and where you poop. You then acquire the ego. You have some capacity to perceive and engage the pressures of external reality. You can also engage in secondary process thinking, you having the capacity to plan in advance and grasp that this is not a toilet I’m gonna go where there is one, some linearity in thinking.

      Ages 3-5: Not called the genital stage. (Boys) Little boy is understanding/learning about his penis and is proud, enjoying his appendage. It’s AS IF looks over and sees naked little girl, and wonders what’s going on and she’s been ruined. What could happen to me? This is happening when the child is libidinously is wanting to posses his mother sexually, and having the urge to have sexual intercourse with his mother but understands, because they have developed the ego, that it makes no sense and I will piss off other adult males. I will be castrated if I keep having this urge; he’s already ruined her. That struggle is extremely intense and terrifying. Castration anxiety. It is so huge that he finds a way to mentally distort himself and identify with/become similar to this adult male then I can eventually copulate with somebody like my mother. This is the Oedipus complex, and engaging in this process [Identification with the Agressor, the defensive process through which…], …I acquire the superego. Create “ego ideals, conscience.” Seeking perfection. (Girl) Although it is true children are extremely egocentric and believe their life is the natural state of affairs, girl looks down uninterested, then looks over and is extremely interested in male penis. Where did mine go? I’m ruined, defaced, harmed. Mom took it as some sort of revenge against me because I want to posses my father/adult male figure, so that I can possess a penis in that way. Wants to copulate with father, and impregnated by them, and they want it to be a penis. If they have boy, they have their own penis. Penis Envy. This is occurring when I am first having inklings of sexual urge but there is the anxiety that I have a competitor and could be further harmed. What I’m going to do instead of trying to copulate with adult male, I am going to identify with huge adversary and acquire her capabilities such that I can later in principle possess somebody like my father. The Elektra Complex. When she identifies with mother, she is identifying with the aggressor and forms a superego. Because she is born without this member and feels already defaced, she experiences a narcissistic vulnerability early on. Physically inadequate and unappealing. No goodies. The implication of that is you grow accustomed to this idea and have an inherent masochism. Anxiety of girl is a lot less than that of a boy because she’s already been ruined. Urgency of identifying with aggressor was less intense so superego is going to be weaker. Girl and women are thus less moral/ethical than boys and men. Phallic Stage. Once you get to the end of the phallic stage, everything about your personality has finished developing. You are now you, set in stone. All development stops.

All psychological disorder begins with libido/drive. Everything is ultimately the strength of your libidinous instinct. They set everything in motion. The strength of drive tells us whether you end up over gratified or under gratified. Eg. If you are born with huge drive states, then no mater what you are exposed to, it is never going to be enough to satisfy you. If libidinous drive is really weak, then everything you encounter is like an assault, too much. Over and under gratification can lead to fixation or partial fixation. The conflict associate with lack of gratification is profound then you are going to have a fixation at a particular stage at which that conflict happened. If the conflict is not huge, then you will have a partial fixation.

1. Will carl rogers be on the test?

     - is he considered a neo-freudian?

     - how could he employ his model to work with severe mental illness e.g. schizophrenia?

     - 

- Journals should be 2 pages double spaced. 

- Jung and retrospective analysis: 

     - he does do some of this, but doesn’t it find it to be curative

     - he is more concerned with self-realization, so it retrospective dream analysis is not critical 

- Freud: Development of Clinical Depression 

- fixated at oral stage 

     - something in your mind that helps you gain oral satisfaction. 

     -“Cathected object" (cathexis)

     - connected to object as source of oral gratification, but you cannot always access the object 

     - since you cannot always access the object, you create an image of the object in your mind, which allows you to delay your gratification 

     - the same way you have an internal mental image of the object in the oral stage, you have an internal representation 

- representation in your mind of your mother

- have representation of your brother in your brain. 

- hate your brother for dying 

why is loss an important part of this trigger?

- have this thing, put it in your mind so that you can self soothe

- when you lose the thing, you go back to the way you could have 

- the way you dealt with things in the oral stage is the way that you will deal with them when you regress. 

     - i will deal with the loss of my brother/mother/job by creating mental representation of that person 

     - still upset with that person for leaving you and for abandonment 

     -doesn’t mean you hate them, but they are the target of your upset about the loss 

     - we use this mechanism, but we put it in our mind, and then it becomes self-directed anger 

Depression: anger directed at something inside of you 

For Freud, symptoms come first. He is looking at symptoms and then deducing what stage you are fixated in. The SYMPTOMS for him, are very important. They lead him, solely, to his diagnosis. 

Freud doesn’t have ANY outside sources. He doesn’t care about the perspective of the mother, etc. He just has you as the source of information. 

Primary Process Thinking: Illogical. Symbols in dreams that are soothing to us. We don’t really care whether this is symbolic or an actual representation. 

TERMS TO KNOW: 

Cathected Object, Cathexis

Self-Directed Anger 

Fixation

Strong Fixation: now referred to as a vulnerability 

something that makes you vulnerable to depression—> now, we would say that experiencing a traumatic experience is a vulnerability, makes you more likely to develop depression. 

Fixation- 

-over or under gratification of libidinous urges in psychosexual phase of development

Oral Stage: about taking in, acquiring. Serious conflict, leads to clinical depression.

When you have traumatic experience, you go back to how you coped in the infantile stage 

Partial Fixation:

-Not as profound, but you have an underlying issue. This is a low level underlying problem that colors your everyday life. 

-When you are looking at these things, remember that OCPD and OCD are not interchangeable. 

oral stage: dependent personality 

phallic stage: partial fixation= narcissistic personality disorder. 

anal: partial fixation= compulsive personality disorder. 

Defense Mechanisms: 

sublimation:

doing something societally acceptable to that is satisfying your urge. 

I want to kill people, so I am going to become a surgeon. 

- unconscious in the sense that they have libidinous drive to seek gratification via aggression 

- requires less psychic energies because it does not require suppressing the activity, even though you are transmuting it. 

repression- most basic mechanism. needed for all other defense mechanisms. 

denial: convincing yourself that something did not happen or does not exist. Lying. 

displacement: take out feelings on someone ELSE as though they were the object of my anger. 

     transference

resistance: kind of a broad term for ANY defense mechanism.

projection: you take your feeling and project it onto someone else. 

     - projection and displacement seem similar, but they aren’t the same. 

reaction formation- that’s not me, this is me. i don’t hate you, i love you. 

     - will be important for 

repression: forgetting traumatic experience. 

sublimation- marriage, permitted sexual relationships 

rationalization- changing the reason why you are acting a certain way 

5 Phases: 

Oral- 

     - anaclitic 

     - 

Anal 

Phallic

Latency 

Genital 

NOTHING Happens to your personality after the phallic stage (after age 5) 

There is a lot of reason to reject this—> even at its core (personality), we would not necessarily describe ourselves the same way now as we would when we were 5. 

All psychopathology comes from LIBIDO—> comes from the ID. Libidinous energy is from the ID. 

Psychotherapy: 

1. Free Association- you just talk. 

     - you lay on the couch, and you look at nothing. you have no relationship with the therapist. they will just    prod you if you say nothing. doesn’t matter how tangential. The analyst wants a stream of consciousness of your thoughts

2. Abreaction- emotional moment you will reach (Can happen over and over), NODAL Moment. 

3. Emotional Insight- result of abreaction. NOT the same as intellectual logic. 

- this is transformative. 

4. Interpretation 

     - the analyst comes in and offers their thoughts on WHY you are having a given reaction. 

5. Resistance

6. Working Through- trying to understand and come to acceptance of your weird unconscious urge, and integrate it into your life to prevent future regression. Accept a bomb that’s been laid on your life. Bridging the emotional and the logical. 

     - this is not necessarily one time. people do psychoanalysis for 2-3 years before they feel like they have           reached. Analysis now is considered the term of study. 

7. Termination- and you’re done. 

Transference: (very important): Re-experience the conflict and displace it onto the analyst. The non-relationship is what allows the transference to take place. You will relive it with your analyst as if they are your parent (or whatever the target of your libidinous energy is.)

- transference to other people

- When you are not a blank slate, you are more likely to enact transference. 

Content of transference: psychosexual urge—> libido. 

Psychosexual conflict is reducible to libido. (make sure to get this right). 

Freud thinks that awareness of your psychosexual conflict is CURATIVE: Emotional Insight and Awareness in terms of Interpretation. 

Defense Mechanisms seem to rely on having a sense of reality. 

Carl Jung: 

Self-Realization—> first conception of an overarching way to integrate the self and understand yourself, and fully understand yourself. This comes back in 3rd wave approaches. 

- gain an understanding of who you are and utilize those things in life. 

Differentiation and Integration- 

taking parts of yourself that are divorced from one another, and making space for all of them. 

Opposing Forces: Yin and Yang 

Anima/Animus—> feminine and masculine part of yourself. 

     - you will de-emphasize the half of you that is not as present—> SHADOW ASPECT. 

     - learn different parts of yourself, what they are, and integrate them into the way that you make decisions. 

-understand yourself. 

Archetypes: mother earth, hero, categories into which we fit our behavior. 

Jung is a spiritual dude- there are ways we experience the world, and our cultural archetypes are important. 

Extrovert/Introvert- these are also archetypes. 

Goal: get to wholeness. Allow all parts to work together and in tandem with each other. 

Competency/Mastery—> understand how to utilize parts of ourselves to be the most functional possible. Want to be good at life. 

     - social

     -emotional 

Spirituality- greater connectedness to the world 

Archetypes: shared consciousness. Very abstract. 

Eric Erikson: 

Focus on Interpersonal Adaptation and how we form relationships with others 

8 stages, that each exemplify crises that are experienced in our life. 

1. Age 1: Trust vs. Mistrust. Who can I rely on and who will show up for me? I trust and feel safe or I don’t (connect to Bowlby)

2. Age 2-4: Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt: I’m good or I’m bad. Competency over controlling yourself. 

     - developmental theory. You must go through these stages

3. Age 5: Initiative vs. Guilt: goal directed purpose, am I gonna do this thing or am I guilty and have no goal. 

4. Age 10/11: Industry vs Inferiority: 

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (pre-teen/teenage)

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation 

7. Generativity vs. Self-absorption 

8. Integrity vs. Despair 

Freud

· first thinker to talk about the unconscious- aspects of the mind that operate outside of awareness, and that we cannot intentionally change, get rid of, or get access to

· experiences that we have, especially those that are painful, will lead you to feel pained and anxious and you will defend against those bad things that happen to you. Mind engages in psychological defense designed to protect you.

First theory- which he held until 1905: theory of anxiety and defense (aka Seduction/Molestation Theory)

· rests upon idea of physical abuse in childhood at the hands of a parent, in particular MOLESTATION 

· sexually abused by an adult person in your environment, whether a parent, relative, etc. 

· through this experience, you are being used as a tool, and that experience of being thrown about and physically damaged by another person is too much to bear, betrayal of vulnerability that is traumatizing 

· psychopathology, whatever it is, is human suffering that derives from early childhood trauma in the form of sexual abuse. 

· the defensive processes the mind engages in to defend you from that betrayal 

· Assumptions: 

· reality matters

· the way you were treated in your life matters 

· psychsexual abuse is what happened in reality 

· trauma when you are vulnerable and dependent on others for your survival is utterly and completely unacceptable and UNPROCESSABLE 

· defensive maneuvers (defense mechanism)= repression. 

· without knowing or intending it, this experience of this trauma gets shoved out of your mind into the unconscious so that it is not something that you have in your awareness anymore. 

· bundle of trauma, followed by anxiety, and then defense, is what CAUSES psychopathology 

· when he publishes these ideas and this theory, he publishes this to a fair amount of acclaim. 

· He is in Vienna, very conservative society, and the entire medical community is Up in Arms. They perceive him as a horror story. They think he is making this up. 

· Medical community thinks that the probability that everyone has been molested is incredibly low 

· Freud is attacked and lampooned in the press 

· Who are these colleagues? Freud trained as a neurologist. Job to diagnose disease as a physical illness. 

· At this time, the referral of last resort is the referral to a neurologist. No one can figure out what is going on with you. People in neurology have a strange set of cases that are difficult to diagnose. 

· He is trying to propose this theory and not be ostracized from his profession. 

· No colleagues think this has ANYTHING to do with medicine. 

· He ultimately rejects all of the premises of this theory when he presents his second theory 

Second Theory (after 1905): 

· Freud retracts his original idea, saying that he made an inferential error 

· Drive-Structure Model 

· Even though it seemed evident that these women had been molested as children, what I now REALIZE is that something different is going on. 

· ALL PEOPLE are born with a universal urge/instinct/drive that is psychosexual in nature. 

· this psychosexual instinct is infantile in nature.

· the urge (LIBIDO)  is building up and seeking expression—> biologically given level of drive

· need to obtain a release of the building up of tension  

· the urge is what CREATES your personality. 

· the urge migrates to different parts of the body. Initially, we seek gratification via one part of the body

· Initially: seeking oral gratification, the erotic urges have moved toward the oral cavity and getting pleasure from rolling tongue along lips and gums and sucking on the nipple

· as instinct migrates, and infant is seeking gratification in a certain part of the body, developmental processes occur

· these developmental process are ALSO biologically given 

· NOT that you were sexually abused, its that you had an unconscious drive to possess your opposite sex parent, or some other person, sexually. In the process of wishing that, your psyche began to develop so that conflicts surrounding this psychosexual urge arise, you defend against them, but ultimately it is not the case that they ACTUALLY occurred. 

· “wished to be molested”- this wish is unacceptable to you, and that is what then leads to psychological defense, neurosis and the like 

· the Instinct end up fueling the entire psychic system, which is at the basis of your personality

· in the new theory, reality does not matter 

· what ultimately matters is BIOLOGY 

· Why is he so attached the idea of psychosexual molestation and the idea that we want to be molested?

· some of his patients are extremely complicated

· woman with paralysis of her arm 

· no idea what’s going on, can’t solve it, can’t treat it 

· he’s doing his examination, and he can’t find any physical cause of her paralysis 

· as they continue to talk, and she returns, she is talking, she bursts into tears, and blurts out the story that she is remembering being attacked by my father, or having a sexual interaction

· while she is sobbing about this, and apparently remembering it for the first time, she takes her paralyzed arm and lifts it up to wipe her tears. 

· freud is trying to create a model which can somehow account for this 

· he was exposed to MORE than one case like this 

· This thing is enormously painful and hideous

· The reason he retained the focus on seduction, and the wish for this, is because he observes this frequently in talking to people 

· Though he was referred to as a scientist, he was not. He was a doctor but not a scientist. 

· Cannot study patients in a scientific manner- this is anecdotal observation. 

· Drive= Libido, the psychic system is the ID, EGO, and SUPEREGO. Libido fuels the emergence of these structures of the mind. 

· Almost all of this theory is untestable because it is formulated in a manner that is untestable. 

· Contextual criticism: This DID give him the ability to remain in the medical community because he made biological drive more central to his theory. 

· If he claims that people have been molested in REALITY (per first theory), then he is restricted to talking about a very limited group of people. His GOAL is AMBITIOUS, and is to talk about the human mind in general, as it applies to everyone. In the end, what Freud is able to do with the Drive Structure Model, is generalize. He can now say that ALL PEOPLE independently of culture/socialization, all people are born with drive, its source is in BIOLOGY. 

· Differences between people can be attributed to the differences in the level of drive  with which you are born. 

· What actually occurs doesn’t matter because it is experienced as utterly subjective. The subjectivity is reducible to biology. 

· The theory is not dependent on culture, not dependent on society, not located anywhere

· CROSS CULTURALLY UNIVERSAL SET OF PROCESSES THAT CHARACTERIZE ALL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT from early infancy onward.

Instinct- What is Instinct and how does anyone define instinct?

· usual understanding is that there is a source, an aim, and an object. 

· for Freud, there is no object, since this dynamic of instinct is occurring in the mind. 

· source 

· biology/libido

· aim 

· pleasure (tension reduction)

· object toward which the instinct is targeted

· problem: this should be something IN REALITY. But, what he is saying is REALITY doesn’t matter. There doesn’t need to be an opposite sex parent- none of this is grounded in things that are actually occurring. 

· Libido is object-less. 

Substance of the Drive-Structure Model: 

Libido is there, and will form these psychic structures. 

· ID- born with it. In early childhood development, this is all you have.

· Seeking pleasure and gratification.

· Gimme, gimme, gimme. 

· Pleasure Principle- drive of ego to release tension 

· Primary Process Thinking- unlike ordinary waking thinking 

· largely symbolic 

· most similar to your dream life 

· time does not command obedience of what is going on as it ordinarily would 

· geography is the same. I can be both present and absent 

· thinking is not linear, it is irrational, it is taking place in an irrational way, and it is defined primarily by symbols

· Ego- rational thought

· secondary process thinking

· logically, rationally, sequentially 

· the ego, as it is developing, has the capability of having some responsiveness to reality 

· mind acquires capability of detecting that something is happening externally 

· reality principle: it is still the case that as you get older, you acquire the capacity to navigate your social surround in such a way that if something is in the path of your crawling, or walking, you will walk around it.

· The ID has no capability of engaging with reality- libido is objectless. 

· the ID will not lead me to be searching reality for a REAL opposite sex adult to copulate with, 

· whatever object is there will do for the purposes of what you need

· Superego- conscience, rules, punishments 

· formed of two aspects: 

· conscience: your sense of what is bad, hideous and grotesque and fear of the things that will befall you if you pursue those things, anticipated penalties. 

· ego ideal: about what I aspire to be, what I feel i must be, what I wish to be. WISHFUL/ASPIRATIONAL idea

Characteristic of this system: 

· fundamentally defined by CONFLICT

· ID- seeking pleasure 

· Superego- seeking perfection according to some kind of standard, dismissing the desires of the id and feeling sickened by the self

· Ego is recipient of id and superego’s dramatically opposing unconscious focus and the pressure coming from the environment. 

· Ego- sensing reality. Ego is, by definition, weak. Ego is a slave to three forces: ID, SUPEREGO, and REALITY.

· In your personality development and in the rest of your life, what is happening is the matter of pressure, conflict, and compromise. 

· There will NEVER be a solution to the problem. 

Consciousness: 

ID- entirely unconscious 

Superego- mostly, but not entirely unconscious

Ego- somewhat conscious, but NOT ALL CONSCIOUS. the reason the ego is not all conscious is because: as you formulate your ego, you, by definition, have the capability for psychological defense. 

Pressures coming from ID are very anxiety producing. The Ego will change what you are experiencing so that what you are actually experiencing is not actually whats going on, so that you can move forward without disturbance. 

Freud- repetition compulsion. 

Harry Stack Sullivan- MODALITIES (protaxic, parataxic, syntaxic)

Fundamental Human Needs: 

1. Satisfaction 

     -share inner life 

     -develop talents 

     - express self and be able to keep you in my life 

2. security- integration and connection 

everything he is talking about varies significantly and pointedly from Freud, in terms of drive AND structure. 

concept of consciousness/what is in the unconscious. 

Similar to what we know from the science about how things develop. 

Proposes 3 aspects of development that are happening VERY early on: 

1. Prototaxic Stage: Sullivan argues that this is the condition you are born with. There is NOT a lot that is conscious as you and I know consciousness. 

     - Infant is not responding to environment. The ordinary way of having regular human thoughts is NOT present in infants. we begin with RAW FEEL of life. Light/noises/cuddly/itchy butt. 

Just responding to discomfort, or feeling good, or images, that are pleasant or unpleasant. 

Everything is totally unconscious because you do not have a way to categorize or label objects as separate from you. 

2. Parataxic Stage: baby talk + caretaker understanding 

-Develop baby talk- start articulating things you are trying to refer to, but you don’t yet have words. No existence in shared language. 

- garbled expression of reference

- what he is MOST interested in is NOT just that it is not social shared, but to the point of his theory, as you are formulating these expressions, your primary caretaker has an ability to KNOW WHAT YOU ARE TALKING ABOUT. 

- strange unique language that the parent and child are negotiating together so the parent can be responsive to the kid. 

-this is the beginning of the kid learning to use some kind of language

- one person can be quasi responsive to

-implies that as you formulate these ‘words’, you are forming idiosyncratic concepts/categories in the mind, and idiosyncratic MEANINGS

-idiosyncratic relationship 

- this is the beginning of consciousness (communication at the least)

3. Syntaxic Stage 

- how to use words and language and categories, and sentences as other human beings employ them 

- might still be be engaging with primary caretaker, but can use words in socially shared ways to be able to engage with lots of people who share your language system 

- consensual validation- using concepts/categories in the way that everyone uses them 

- consciousness is now in relatively Full Bloom 

- can search memory by labels

- be aware of what you are saying and why you are saying it

- whorf hypothesis: argues that if you do not have a word for something, you ‘cannot see it.’ 

     - idea that the labels drive the perception. ex: many words used by eskimos for snow and white. 

Consensual Validation, in syntaxic stage. as you are learning how to do this, you are learning how to navigate social life. If you fail to arrive to this stage and utilize, and refine and develop what you are capable of in that sense, to that degree you will be regarded as mentally ill. 

These are not just stages of development, but they are nested—> by the time you get to phase 3, you have all 3 modalities of experience (continue to experience. Maintain sense of raw feel, maintain the idiosyncratic responses, and syntaxic stage. 

Parataxic Distortion: 

Sullivan’s conceptualization of TRANSFERENCE. 

- self connected in memory with significant other by dynamisms. 

- when you are under some circumstance, the bundle of knowledge/memories about significant other will ARISE and come into play. Allows you to see a new person as if he or she IS the significant other. 

     - take bundle of knowledge and superimpose it upon a new person. 

     - relationship with significant other is in play 

     - self you experience with your significant other is ALSO in play 

     - quasi-distorting what is going on 

     - illusory two person group- my notion of my sig other is placed upon you, and      then I see myself and experience self as I am when I am with that person. I am inclined to enact that version of myself as well. 

similarity to freud: something from past is unconsciously influencing current behavior. Content and Process is otherwise COMPLETELY unrelated. 

What is the content from relationship with significant other that I would be re-experiencing in cognitive distortion?

- fundamental human needs, and how they have or have not been met by parents/fundamental care giver. 

     - ex: expect rejection 

     - ex: using knowledge you have in memory in order to engage in reality in the only way you know

this is coloring and contaminating your experience with other people in your every

- if you are someone in my life who I already care about, you are more likely to matter to me, so I am more likely to have need in response to you, and these will be significant in the way that they were with my primary significant other. 

Treatment: 

completely different arguments about what treatment should consist of. 

There is something destructive about the therapist holding on to what he or she believes (i.e. theoretical foundation). Cannot assume this is happening with your patient regardless of what they say

- this approach is destructive and counterproductive

- therapist should take a  position of humility— “I don’t know everything. You know, since it if your life. You may not know perfectly, but you know better than me.” Basically, therapist should be arring into treatment with the attitude that an anthropologist brings to a foreign culture. 

- participant observation: you want to have the people you are studying engage you in what they are doing so that you can have some hope of understanding, grasping, what they are doing and what things mea in this culture. 

- in therapy, I should assume I don’t know you. my job is to be a participant observer in your life with you. seek to see reality through your eyes. 

- sitting face to face, talking, with some psychoanalysis, but without that sense of distance 

- aim should be to throw yourself inside the client’s experience and take on their experience, even if they are delusions, hallucinations, to try to experience life as this person does, and this give you the capability of grasping what they are going through. 

- need to have the ability to not stay there, but to learn to oscillate between being completely inside the patient’s perspective, and then regain distance. (like a figure 8)

- assumption is that relationship dynamics are at the heart of what is going on with you 

- treat by coming to terms with relationships and your experience of them. 

General Pt: segue into behavioral approaches. 

Despite differences between Sullivan and Freud, all of the psychodynamic people (neo-freudians and Freud) made a similar assumption about the PURPOSE of therapy. 

-Purpose of psychotherapy is to GAIN INSIGHT into what is going on with you. This is different for Sullivan than for Freud, but the assumption is the same. 

- the what and why of what is going on with you-> this will be curative. 

Behavioral Therapy: 

insight isn’t necessary or sufficient. 

behavior change strategy is necessary and sufficient for cure. 

Provide with tools you can use to change your behavior. 

Implementation of behavior change strategies that are the focus of behavioral approaches. 

Pavlov

- hugely important in behavioral thinking, and in psychological thinking 

- model of learning/behaviorism: classical conditioning. 

BF Skinner

-instrumental (operant) conditioning 

If you are interested in any Freudians, and inclined to see self as neo-freudian, one of the questions becomes: how do people learn? Need to understand learning to understand psychodynamic processes, from the scientific 

Reality 

culture 

Socialization 

LEARNING IS FUNDAMENTAL. 

Pavlov: 

Began his model of learning by studying animals—> begins with biologically given MOTIVATION, physical need of some kind. Learning he studies builds on that learning. 

Begin with deprivation—> don’t allow animal to eat all day. 

You will have a special physical need to eat and sensitivity to things related to eating. 

Now you are 

Skinner: 

Begins with NOTHING. 

Summary of Freud: 

Latency Phase: nothing happens during latency phase. 

Genital Phase: final stage of psychosexual development 

Phallic Stage: Naricissistic personality disorder develops in the context of the phallic stage, ages 3-5. 

After 5: latency phase 

Genital Phase- after age 6. Nothing at this point changes in terms of personality development. 

Influences after 5 are not causal, crucial, or transformative. 

Disorder evolves from over OR under gratification of libido. 

SOURCE of psychopathology is LIBIDO. LIBIDO is biological, you are born with it. 

Psychoanalysis: 

1. Psychoanalysis is Freud’s treatment story. 

2. When you hear the world Psychotherapy, and you hear the word psychoanalysis, these are not identical.

3. Psychotherapy is a generic term. Psychoanalysis is just ONE example

4. Psychodynamic psychotherapy, this means that one or more of the kind of neofreudian folks is evoked in their therapy. They are NOT strict Freudians, but do take a somewhat developmental approach, inspired by someone who was in the Freudian scene 

5. Psychoanalysis sort of owns NY. There is pressure here to be a part of the analyst community. 

6. What is psychoanalysis?- a few, extremely simple components. 

7. If you are an analyst, and you are the analysand (patient). You come in, you are suffering with something. 

1. I have a couch, and I am gong to sit behind your head 

2. You should get as FEW cues for me as possible. 

3. analyst is a BLANK screen 

4. Show you as little as possible about myself, my views. I want you to be uninfluenced by me, for your own underlying conflicts to come to the fore and be experienced in relation to me. 

5. No clues, no hints, no prompts 

8. Process of Psychoanalysis: 

1. Free Association: 

· FREE ASSOCIATION: saying ABSOLUTELY everything that comes to mind, no matter how tangential 

· This is the nub, ultimately, of what is going on in this analysis.

· Purpose: the goal is to make the unconscious conscious 

· THE AIM is AWARENESS- conscious awareness. This is the ‘be all and end all of cure"

· Side note: “I am in analysis”= psychoanalysis 2-3 times a week for 3 yearsish, or for woody allen.  

2. Abreaction- something that happens, as well as a phase

2. as I am free associating, I will come upon the nub of something, some kind of unconscious conflict. You will re-experience it, and then you may burst into tears sobbing about this, or maybe you will be filled with rage/anger. You will obtain EMOTIONAL INSIGHT. 

1. there is some tension here. its not, usually, that you are reliving an actual traumatic experience. 

1. usually, you are re-experiencing a psycho-sexual conflict, even though it is not an accurate memory. horrified to have such grotesque urge, and filled with agony that my urge is not fulfilled. 

1. This will arise in ways that might produce conflict. 

8. Interpretation

3. when something happens, such as an abreaction, the therapist may offer an INTERPRETATION 

3. The INTERPRETATION IS the treatment tool. 

2. should be carefully timed 

2. offered properly 

2. it is often unaccepted

8. Resistance

4. they analyst has it right, or continues to believe this is the case

4. the patient must have it more or less wrong 

4. therefore, it is a matter of “waiting it out."

4. an Emotional Insight, which may come later, may lead you to grasp the interpretation 

8. Working Through 

5. Coming to terms with what you have just re-experienced. 

5. The therapist is doing nothing different than what he or she was doing originally

8. Termination 

6. drawing treatment to a close 

Transference: 

· good

· necessary 

· looks like abreaction, but the distinction is that, whatever your defensive process it, you are now going to re-experience it in principle, but now you will experience this whole thing in relation to the analyst. 

· Transference: displace the psychosexual conflict ONTO the analyst. 

· analyst behaving competitively with me 

· you are trying to best me 

· infantile psychosexual conflict displaced upon the analyst 

· at this point, the analyst 

· what is the content of transference? PSYCHOSEXUAL CONFLICT- reducible to libido and the conflicts that those libidinous conflicts create. 

· Transference may be very explosive 

· As you become used to and accustomed to this new awareness, the new awareness is both necessary and sufficient for CURE. 

Freud does not require resistance, but it typically occurs. If I am the analyst, then what I am doing ALL the time, everything you do or say, is a symptom to me or a sign for me of your underlying psychosexual conflict. If you surrender to me, then I am interested in that. Your reaction is ALSO a sign of the resolution of your unconscious conflict that you came upon. 

Once we have 1905 theory, and we are talking seriously about it, and we have the 

Problems with Psychoanalysis: 

1. the risk of this model is that it requires you to dismiss any disagreement with your theory 

Contemporaries of Freud 

C.G. Jung 

1. Brilliant, in a completely different way than Freud. He is a master of many trades. He is, on the one hand, a cultural anthropologist, but also a shrink/medical doctor, but he thinks in a much broader way than Freud does. 

1. Freud is trying to reduce everything to one biological story 

2. Jung is trying to expand things in completely different directions.

1. makes  a lot of metaphysical assumptions: collective unconscious, archetypes, spirituality

2. motivation and self-realization 

1. who are you? 

2. utilize your fundamental nature in order to harness it for the purpose of living your life 

3. Engage in a process of differentiation and integration 

1. introspecting upon own qualities, tendencies, nature in such a way as to differentiate opposing aspects of the self 

2. we ALL contain all kinds of opposing aspects

1. both men and women contain an anima (female side) and animus (male side of self)

3. Important to achieve WHOLENESS

4. Two basic components (phase-like): 

1. Competency and Mastery: reach up, open door, and push. bigger and bigger challenges, particularly all through early life in early 20s and 30s. People are still really developing competency/capability/talent

2. Spirituality/religious experience. Spiritual connectedness to the universe is pretty universal across cultures. This is you, in your human effort, to find a way to locate yourself in the greater cosmos, the greater universe of influences. 

1. locating self in broader cosmology, with meaning and metaphysical understanding, seeing life in a way that gives ME meaning in my puny individual life.

2.

3. Example: Dreams

1. Freud: retrospective

1. whatever is going on in the dream is a manifestation of my unconscious psychosexual conflicts. Everything comes down to penises, vaginas, conflicts, castration. 

2. not going to refocus you on the image of your dream 

2. Jung: prospective 

1. Libido is not sexual at all. 

2. loves dream analysis, would bring you back to the dream

1. what else does that remind you of, what else is that connected to. 

3. distinguish between retrospective dream analysis and prospective dream analysis—> 

1. prospective: implications for the future

2. assumptions of prospective dream analysis

1. everything there is to be known about you, you already know. 

2. you may not know that you know it, but the nub of the truth of who you are, what you want, what you are oriented toward, its already in there. 

3. The problem is that it is sullied by other stuff that is confusing you about it

4. while some dreams are trivial, there are dreams that he calls big dreams. 

1. the idea is that it is about a future decision or  an approach to where you want to be, or how to live your life, or a smaller decision needed in the immediate future.

2. The wisdom of WHAT you actually need, and why you need to go in a certain direction, is embodied in that dream. 

3. looking at the SYMBOLS in the dream, and the processes in the dream, which according to Sullivan would include components from ordinary daily life. 

4. there will be, in the dream, a message to you, an epiphany, about how best to proceed with your life given that you have choices before you 

3. What do psychologists think about lucid dreaming?

1. some jungians say that if you control yourself in a dream, if you are regulating something 

2. ex: dream about being upstairs in apartment above, something unpleasant going on, and then there was a monster in the above apartment, and dr. andersen is running and she’s gonna die, but instead, she flew and floated

1. this is a transcendence dream. 

2. you take charge, you exit , you take a big risk to get away from the monster, but with whatever you did/will do, you will be able to have a soft landing. it will not be suicide. 

3. Fear, or intense emotion, will often wake people up. 

4. Jung: no hard and fast rules. Freud is all about hard and fast rules. Jung is about uniqueness of the dreamer and the life of the dreamer. 

Alfred Adler

1.Mastery/Superiority 

- Drive toward masculinity, asserting masculinity/becoming masculine. Shifts toward a drive toward power. 

- you are born a teeny, incompetent creature. you have nothing, no knowledge, no anything. 

- you ARE inferior, when you are born. it feels uncomfortable to be incapable of doing anything. 

- VERY satisfying to acquire capability

-compensation for Inferiority is to pursue the drive toward competency development/talent development/ power/ superiority 

2. Social Relatedness 

- need relationships with other people in balance with competency in order to feel well. 

PRAGMATIC

- heavily focused on REALITY factors. 

- reality of conditions in which you are coming of age 

-focused on working class people and those who do not have any wealth in their families. 

- how can you treat human suffering as it concerns CONTEXT

- He is really, ultimately, talking about GOALS. 

- Essentially, what people are doing in life is establishing GOAL STRIVING. 

     - life goals, life tasks, define the choices that you will make. 

     - how much you persist toward your goals 

     - fictional finalism, which to say that as you striving toward goals you are acting as if your goals are reacher, or even HAVE been reached. 

     by having these goals, we eventually learn to do these things. 

     - neurosis come down to UNREALISTIC life goals, or unrealistic strategies for           reaching those goals. 

          - if your goals are way beneath your capability, this will also be a big problem. 

     - need to pursue STRATEGIES that will allow you to achieve those goals. 

Social Learning:

Vicarious Conditioning- 

     - Vicarious Reinforcement: watching someone else be                    

reinforced—> same as acquiring outcome expectancy 

          - have outcome reinforcement

          - vicarious punishment is NOT as strong

Bandura: proposes cognitive meditational model: introduced P(person)— your interpretation of events matters. 

Expectancy: set of beliefs about the outcome of a certain thing. 

Self-efficacy expertancy:

- what you expect impacts the likelihood that you will/won’t do it 

- if you don’t think you are able to ride a bike (low-self efficacy), you won’t do it. 

         -note: self efficacy is NOT self-esteem. 

feedback loop: even if you do the behavior, and you do it somewhat poorly, that increases your expectation that you can do it.  

not taking on opportunities REDUCES self-efficacy expectation—> likelihood of doing the behavior decreases. 

Outcome expectancy: what you expect to happen as a result of a behavior. 

The ENVIRONMENT Impacts your expectation— if you are in a very hard class and the teacher says they will only give one A

Outcome value: how much is it worth to you, what does it mean to you. 

Bandura thinks about reinforcement (increase in behavior)— he pulls reinforcement into his model, but not punishment. 

P(B)=f(Self Efficacy* Outcome expectancy)

     - self efficacy needs to improve in therapy for there to be a change. 

     - if you don’t have a change in self-efficacy, it really doesn’t matter what is presented externally. If I don’t believe I can ride a bike, then it doesn’t matter if you offer me 10 dollars to do it. 

turns out that there is ANOTHER factor= outcome value. 

Eccles: Low SES— wants to change people’s self efficacy expectation and outcome expectancy. what is missing for them is the EXTENT to which they VALUE THAT OUTCOME. If the outcome is not of value to you, then the likelihood that you will do it is still about the same. 

Bandura: 

ABCs: 

thoughts/feelings/cognitions/emotions 

antecedent: 

skinner: its the physical or 

Bandura: its the thought that you have that you can’t do it/can do it/really want to get paid

Rogers: 

-Unconditional positive regard: I love you no matter what you do. 

- conditional positive regard: condition of only caring for someone conditionally 

the CURATIVE thing that a therapist needs to do is GIVE unconditional positive regard that the child NEVER got. 

     - The implications for this are LARGE: problem is that this means that you don’t need to have special training to be a therapist 

          - friends 

          - teacher

          -suicide hotline 

          - delivering unconditional positive regard

Tory Higgins: you have an actual ought and ideal self. Idea of who actually are, idea of who you ought to be (a la super ego) this is what the world wants from me (ideal: this is what I want). Actual: this is who I think I am. THESE ARE SELF CONCEPTS A PERSON HAS ABOUT THEMSELVES. Does not take into account what you are experiencing deep down. 

          - interested in self-regulatory behavior

          - actual self—> who you believe yourself to be. 

Rogers

1. Organismic experience 

     - who you are deep down inside, at your core. might not have a concept of it. might not have a schema of it, but deep deep down I want xyz...

2. Self (self-concept)

     - through conditional positive regard, you build a conception of WHO you ARE. I’m someone that wins medals for violin performance, i love violin, I’m determined, I’m independent, etc. 

3. Conditions of worth: psychopathology is more likely to develop if you have conditional regard from your parents all the time. If/when you are worth something. someone has been presented with conditions of WORTH. 

4. Client centered therapy: job of the client is to talk, should be avoiding diagnostic terms. should avoid jargon. have a face to face conversation and give them unconditional regard. Fewer sessions than in psychoanalysis, dealing with current concerns. 

     - understand you/feel you/get that! 

Discrepancy between organismic experience and SELF concept— when you were raised with a lot of unconditional positive regard. 

Humanists: concerned with self-actualization—> the idea that you can be your full/true self. 

Existentialist: concerned with conscious experience, death. 

Many existentialists are also humanists: Maslow is both. 

Maslow: 

- hierarchy of needs

- at the top is self-actualization. 

- look at the pyramid in THE BOOK. 

- self actualization is a human need/ human drive. 

Existentialism: 

-In existential philosophy there is no absolute truth (waiting for godot/the stranger). not helpful for therapeutic purposes. 

In existential therapy, there is one fundamental truth: EMPATHY. 

- capacity for empathy: sullivan and Rollo May (humanistic person). 

     - there IS a truth in the fact that you have empathy and you need to honor it. If you go against it, you deny your own humanity. 

Rollo May: first psychologist  to write apply existentialism to psychology. 

     - engage in things where turn off my humanity, no longer a person. 

     - existential anxiety (grasp that there is no truth). 

Ontological Anxiety (looks forward)- have a lot of choices and its overwhelming. I don’t want to choose. 

Ontological Guilt (looks backward)- look back and realize that you didn’t make any choices for yourself, instead you just floated along. 

Shrinking of consciousness: default to the easiest choice= not having to choose. This occurs by saying that there is an outside force that is MAKING ME DO THIS. 

For Rollo May, engaging in critical thought is an important part of the human experience. If you stop engaging in critical thought, then you have stopped allowing yourself to be human. 

According to this view, humanity is not a given. You can choose not to have it= BAD FAITH= going against what you feel is true. 

As long as I’ve analyzed EVERYTHING, then I know that I MADE THE CHOICE. 

Clarifications: 

FREUD:

preconscious 

unconscious 

conscious 

Milgram/Zimbardo: why do good people do bad things?

- how do we live with ourselves? 

- what does that do to us as people?

· LECTURE 9/23

· Basic Human Needs/Motivation

· 1. Connection:

· Freud: No

· Jung: No? Not explicitly stated, but slightly embedded (each individual has capacity for extraversion and introversion)

· Adler: Yes

· 2. Autonomy:

· Freud: No

· Jung: Not really stated, no

· Adler: No

· 3. Competence:

· Freud: No

· Jung: Yes

· Adler: Yes – mastery/power

· 4. Meaning:

· Freud: No

· Jung: Yes

· Adler: No

· 5. Security:

· Freud: No – kind of

· Jung: Yes a little

· Adler: A little?

·  

·  

· Defense mechanisms operate via ego

· Where does ego come from?  Derivation of libidinous impulse – not a free standing need for security

·  

· Neo-Freudians

· Wanted to argue that the ego is not just reducible to drive – idea of being able to regulate your own behavior, plan ahead, develop goals, etc., these ideas are stronger than Freud assumes

· Some also claimed there is a conflict free sphere of the ego – ego is not reducible to libido; it has a life of it’s own

· Reduction in the power of libido – libido isn’t the most powerful thing in the psychic system

· Karen Horney:

·

· Interpersonally oriented psychodynamic theorists

· How in the context of interpersonal relationships, you learn who you are – acquire a sense of self

· Harry Stack Sullivan:

·

· Assumes 2 fundamental human motivations/needs:

· 1. Satisfaction:

· 1a.Express/develop your competencies, talents, etc.

·

·

· Not just to develop in terms of overt behavior, knowledge acquired, etc., -- fundamental need to be able to express in words your internal states, life, feelings, attitudes, wishes, dreads, fears, etc. to express in words your internal states which includes everything in your mind

· VERBAL EXPRESSION of the way that you feel. 

· Important for you to be able to say that you are annoyed, or irritated, upset, angry. 

· 1b. Integrating Tendencies

· I have a fundamental need to be able to be in your presence and to engage with you in a way that is good – I want to be able to engage with you in some kind of human way. A workable way. 

· Because of the power of the integrative tendencies, you have a fundamental need to express/do all of those things, without taking the risk of losing the other person/pushing them away

· Often we are at risk of losing the other person by telling them the truth

· It’s about not losing the love, affection, support, relationship with that human being

· The more the tension exists between the needs, the more you can’t express competencies without the risk

· Security/Safety:

· Each of us is born with a capacity for human empathy

· I am born with a capacity to feel what you are feeling while you are feeling it

· The moment you are born and there are other humans/another human, you’re focused on that human

· But you also don’t know what you’re doing

· You’re a big bundle of emotion – in those early moments, whatever the mother (primary caretaker) is experiencing emotionally, is exactly what you’re experiencing

· You’re the same person as that person

· You take from that significant other and this helps acquire your sense of self

· The connection between the other and the self  the relationship

· personification

· dynamisms, dynamics

· clarify these things since your stupid Microsoft crashed

· during primordial actions with mom, she’s doing/experiencing positive things – calm, gentle, nurturing, joyous, playful, etc.

· these things end up constituting my first understanding of “the good mom” – when I’m in the presence of the good mom, I have the capacity to embrace those feelings and actions – I come to make judgments about whatever I’m experiencing at that time as aspects of me that are good, because they’re associated with “good mom”

· also mom is sometimes in a bad mood – resentful, angry, cranky, etc. – I don’t know what she’s annoyed about, but she’s displaying these feelings and as far as I’m concerned, that’s all about me.  I start experiencing these feelings and associate whatever I’m doing at that moment with these emotions – I then acquire a sense of “bad me”  if I engage in this stuff I think it’ll lead to these unpleasant emotions, but I accept that these emotions are part of me

· These personifications and dynamisms are stored away in memory and reflect what Sullivan calls the Conscious Self System, or the Self System – that sense of who you are in relation to another person/other people that you consciously know about and accept

· If there is a traumatic experience, it is shoved into the unconscious the“not me”

· Whatever you were doing at that moment becomes completely unacceptable – everything about your conscious self system is not equal to the not me

· Excludes the not me

· Basic thrust about the beliefs of yourself and the self system – in opposition to the “not me”

· This is like Freudian reaction formation

· Consciously believe the opposite of what is true –

· How does the self system operate?

· The “stronger” self system (how intently you believe these things you believe about the self), the more defensive you are – the more you’re holding on for dear life to things you must/do believe are true and need to believe, because otherwise the opposite stuff may arise to the surface

· Stronger self system  more defended

· Directs/guides attention to the environment so you are going to selectively perceive those things  that are somehow relevant to your self system (selective attention)

· Distorts/dismisses incoming information that is inconsistent with how you see yourself

· Guides the direction of development

· Ex: if you’re a girl and anything associated with boys (sports, science, etc.) is horrible and associated with the “not me,” therefore I come up with an idea of who I am/what I care about – you’re not going to choose math and science if you don’t have to

· Guides your choices – what things to study, life course decisions to make, etc.

· These functions are all examples of security operations

· Everything you’re doing to hold on to the beliefs about yourself that you already have – security operations according to Sullivan

· Significant other linked to the self – essentially the self is being formed in relation to a relatively small/selective set of relationships with people in your life – with each one of these people you have the privilege of learning/acquiring/expressing different aspects of yourself

· Nature of the self you experience with one significant other may be different than with another

· Ultimately have as many personalities as you have important personal relationships

· Does assume a need for connection, competence, mastery, security - none for autonomy, not exactly for meaning

·  Tenderness theorem: need for love and affection from people around you, comes from need for satisfaction. This is part of the INTEGRATIVE TENDENCIES—> wanting affection from other people. 

Shaping by successive approximation (operant conditioning): 

The ABCs of behavioral assessment:

A: Antecedent. 

     1. cue, signal, condition that influence the occurrence of behavior 

2. Behavior: the observable act that a person does 

3. Consequence: the outcome OR feedback that occurs immediately following behavior. 

Problematic, Maladaptive patterns perpetuate sense of inadequacy, that we are less than. this gets set in place by what happens next in that environment. 

When you are trying to do a behavioral assessment, there are multiple ways to do it: 

The least effective, but most commonly used measure/procedure is to ask the patient what has been going on in the last week. Maybe the problematic behavior happened, maybe it didn’t. Question is: what was the behavior, how did it play out, how did it start, how intense was it? What did it look like to other people? Where were you when it occurred?

Behavioral Assessment techniques: 

1. Event Specific 

Where were you?

What room were you in?

what smells were in the air?

Was there a high noise level?

Were you being scolded? 

were you being looked askance at?

WHAT was going on?

What were the consequences of what happened?

you think people started laughing at you. you decided to leave the room. you decided to rest and relax, you managed to relax. Even relaxing in THAT way at THAT time is negatively reinforcing for the behavior of exiting that room, and potentially negatively reinforcing for whatever you did in that room. 

2. Daily journals of every hour 

Every single day at the end of the day, ask yourself: did the behavior occur today?

What is everything about the stimulus context?

What was the behavior? 

What happened immediately AFTER you engaged in the behavior?

3. homework chart on paper, but conducted every 2 hours 

- more fine grained 

4. analog exercise 

bring mom and kid into office and try to replicate what goes on in the household. Shrink observing free-form interaction between them. Instruct mom to bring toys/stuff from home. Observe interaction between mom 

5. Naturalistic Observation- watch kids in the natural environment (at school). walk into the person’s life and observe. 

What really are the behavior that arise? What really are the stimuli that provoke it?

If there is a person who has trouble communicating openly, and saying something that is real and intimate about yourself, if you have not been reinforced for doing that in your life, you will not be very skilled at that. 

What type of conditioning is best to correct this problem?

OPERANT CONDITIONING

- sharing with someone honestly is a SKILLED BEHAVIOR 

Segue: People began asking different kinds of questions. 

IS IT THE CASE, THAT YOU IF YOU LOOK AT THE ASSUMPTION OF THE BLACK BOX (nothing inside that matters). 

Problem with Skinners: 

Skinner does not TEST the assumption that it does not matter what goes on inside the black box (e.g. your head)

He does NOT test this assumption. 

He tested the question: Can I predict your behavior while ignoring what goes on inside the black box?

YES. 

Skinner showed you can predict behavior without understanding what is happening cognitively, BUT people started showing that it DOES matter what goes on inside your head. 

Major Player: Al Bandura 

Quotation: "Most of the images of reality on which we base our actions are really based on vicarious experience."

Social Learning Theory: Learning takes place without reinforcement 

First Discovery was EXACTLY opposed to Skinner: 

Learning can take place WITHOUT reinforcement. 

Complicated skills can be learned without reinforcement. 

How do people learn according to Bandura?

People learn by OBSERVATION. MODELING. The general point is that if you have to learn every complex sequence of behavior through the procedure of SHAPING by progressive approximations, it would take you a lifetime to learn the vocabulary you currently have. 

1. Acquisition 

2. Performance 

Problem with our generation: 

Exposure to crass, pornographic images on video. 

Inclinations about what you want, sexually, are based on performance. This is what you have learned, by observation. 

this is true of EVERYTHING. 

Learn by OBSERVATION. 

1. Acquisition:

How do you observe? You learn by paying attention. 

What will lead you to pay attention?

1. If there is anyone in one of those roles has some similarity to you (of your gender, of your age, but you like the look of one of them, or you just like one of them (find them sympathetic in someway). If the person has power, stature, status, or seemingly does, you will pay attention. 

2. If the performance is vivid, you pay attention. The closer you watch, the more encoded it is, the better you learn it. 

Expectancy: 

acquire the expectancy that you could, or should try to the behavior. 

     a. maybe i can do this 

     b. maybe it would work well if I DO do it 

What is the probability that you might engage in this behavior (i.e. try it once?)

     -Under some circumstances, you might be more likely to try certain behaviors yourself. 

2. vicarious reinforcement/vicarious conditioning 

watch someone doing a behavior, pay attention, you “acquire” the behavior. 

Then, watch her get reinforced. this is as if YOU have been reinforced. 

Now, the likelihood of your engaging in this behavior is vastly increased. 

This is VERY powerful in terms of explaining how we ACQUIRE those sequences of behavior whether we like it or not. 

If we are vicariously reinforced, we are likely to engage in these behaviors 

The real issue is that to enact behavior, especially something somewhat fantastical. In this society we have the illness of thinking it is ok to have guns and give them to everyone else. No background checks. Why? This country is a GUN SHOW. we can sell you anything, at anytime, at a gun show. 

General point: in order to ‘practice,’ you have to have the tool. When the tools are unavailable, you can’t perform the action. 

It is a skill to be able to fiddle around, an

Lecture 8: Pavlov/Conditioning

review sessions: 

Friday 10/16 4-6pm, Bobst LL15

Monday 10/19 7-9pm Silver 207 

Tuesday 10/20 6:30-8:30 Silver 401 

Need to come and bring questions, which means that we need to review BEFOREHAND

KEEP up on the reading. Not just read it, but study it. Take detailed notes on the text. Study the detailed notes. Not just have this go in one eye and out, but to actually UNDERSTAND, and master it, to an extent. 

Come to office hours. Have study groups. 

Atleast half of the exam will be on lecture material. 

Detailed notes on lecture. Treat lecture as independent of knowledge that we are gaining from the text. 

COME TO OFFICE HOURS. GO TO OFFICE HOURS. GO. 

Exam: 

50-60 questions, all multiple choice. 

NYU classes readings assigned before the midterm. 

hardest questions: thought questions. 

          - here is a scenario. xx walking down the street, such and such happens. Sullivan would explain that as…...

- Doing worst: choosing first correct answer you come to. READ ALL the options. 

THERE WILL BE subtle distinctions. Questions will require me to have understood the material, and distinctions between different aspects of the material. 

PAVLOV: 

Discrimination, generalization, extinction 

discrimination: being able to tell what the cue is 

generalization: something similar will suffice

Classical conditioning: based in biological drive toward hunger

Important behavior is learned, and important behavior can also be UNLEARNED. 

Extinction=UNLEARNING

Extinction can, and does, occur. 

Hopeful: if you learn a maladaptive response, it can be unlearned.

This is the foundation of ALL behavioral and cognitive behavioral therapies. 

Why is this model so important and influential in psychology and research?

· - most psychologists are NOT interested in hunger. 

· - EMOTIONAL learning takes place VIA classical conditioning 

Example: Patient 

· Overwhelming panic disorder, turned her into a disabled person. She cannot do many things she used to do to be functional 

· What is the scenario that is bringing her into treatment?

· Working in coffee shop as a barista. 

· Doing her job behind the counter

· Guy walks in, he has a mustache, light brown hair, light skin. He orders a coffee. 

· she starts feeling that she is having a heart attack, sweating out of everywhere, completely losing it. Dizzy, room spinning, falls over, thinks she is dead. they call an ambulance, she is taken to the hospital. 

· Once she has been at the hospital for 20 minutes, they recognize it has been a panic attack and they send her home with anxiolytics. 

· Why did she experience this? (NOT scientific)

· she grew up in a messy home. mother was a serious alcoholic, who often came home with random men. 

· on one particular evening, a man came home with her mom. daughter retreats to bedroom. Mom passed out prematurely. 

· This man crouches down, rushes the bed

· she is screaming, she jumps up and back, hits her head, and she things she is going to die. 

· he does not have a chance to harm her, because he miniature poodle is attacking this guy. he is drunk enough that he can’t fight off the poodle. 

· he retreats, but she stays against the wall. 

· Who is this guy? she never saw this guy again! 

· the guy who walked into the store WAS NOT this guy. 

· Guy at the door has white pale skin, blonde mustache, and blonde curly hair. 

Unconditioned Stimulus: the man charging at her. This is VERY biological- fight or flight response—> need to get out of the way. This is the cause of the FEAR story. 

     - don’t you have to see the stimulus over and over?

Unconditioned response: FEAR. 

Conditioned Stimulus: a man, with pale skin and light colored, blonde hair. 

     - light brown will do- generalization 

     - what if the guy was black, hispanic, a woman?probably outside the realm of   

what was associated

     - presumably a blonde woman with a little mustache would not work well. 

THE GESTALT is one of those DISCRIMINATIVE cues such that, despite the fact that she hasn’t really had panic, here is something causing an explosion. 

     - not a completely irrational, bizarre fear

     - this is classically conditioned, perfectly ordinary learning process that lead to this thing

BUT: She only saw that guy once! 

One thing became clear: although it is always better to have repeated pairings, especially across a wide array of learning stories, the deal is that if the UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE is very intense, then there can be one trial learning. 

One trial learning does occur. Not restricted to emotional learning. 

Issue: How great is the deprivation?

Why does this reaction continue to persist? 

- Neurotic Paradox - holds one trial learning in place. 

· people avoid stimuli that provoke highly anxious situations 

· you AVOID the situation. 

· This means that you CANNOT learn that the stimulus is not dangerous 

· you can’t learn its not the same guy

· you don’ learn that this guy is not dangerous

· you don’t get to learn that he is maybe wonderful,

· Are there more complex conditions that need to be present for the reaction to occur? 

· YES. 

· you have to be able to leave

· this girl was pinned behind the counter, and is she leaves she is going to lose her job. 

· There are CONSTRAINTS here. 

· with regard to discriminative cues, you also need to have something concerning your escape. 

· complex, interesting, and a big deal in research 

· the context, or features of it, matter. 

Pavlovian Theory is the first S->R theory

· SR=Stimulus Response 

· Response= behavioral response

Skinner: 

How much of learning really begins with biological drive and a conditioned response?

what about obviously non-biological skills?!

- tennis

-giving a tender, loving peck 

- language acquisition 

Skinner said: I buy this S—> R theory, but I think you can train an organism to do anything! It doesn’t have to be biologically driven. It can learn anything within the physical limits of its body! 

Started with BLACK BOX: 

- make no assumptions about what is going on between the ears 

- treat this as epiphenomenal (internal states, preferences, wishes, needs, expectancies, etc.) treat as IRRELEVANT. 

-Goal is to predict, train, and change behavior without having to make any guesses about what is going on inside the organism. 

SKINNER: BEHAVIOR CAUSED BY ENVIRONMENT

If I provide you with a reward for a certain behavior, then it will increase the probability that you will engage in that behavior. 

Reward= positive reinforcement. 

Instrumental Conditioning= Operant Conditioning 

What is an Operant? Skinner’s technical term for a RANDOMLY EMITTED behavior. 

OPERANT= Randomly Emitted Behavior 

Want to give a reward to increase probability of randomly emitted behavior. 

· Begin with randomly emitted behavior 

· Give organism reinforcement

· anything that increases the probability of the behavior occurring again 

· this could be a reward

· this could be the removal of a negative stimulus 

· REINFORCEMENT IS EMPIRICALLY DEFINED 

· SKINNER LOVED EMPIRICISM 

· If something is REINFORCING, that means it causes them to REPEAT the behavior. 

· Need to test what is reinforcing for this particular rat?

· ANYTHING THAT CAUSES THE ANIMAL TO DO THE BEHAVIOR AGAIN 

· Positive Reinforcement

· introduced after the behavior occurs 

· this makes it a REWARD 

· general idea is that the reinforcement increases the chance that I will do it again 

· Negative Reinforcement

· also empirically defined, 

· begin with aversive situation 

· ex: a person hurling epithets and saying mean things 

· if I punch this person and they pass out, the negative stimulus is gone 

· the punching (violent behavior) is negatively reinforced by the removal of negative conditions 

· ex 2: its very cold and you put on something warmer, gets rid of freezing cold 

· Punishment

· Skinner is interested in the consequences that follow from a behavior. 

· Punishment is also empirically defined 

· supposed to have the effect of DECREASING the probability of a behavior occurring again 

· ex: spanking, scolding, 

· removal of a positive thing, or grounding (also a punishment)

Discrimination, Generalization, and Extinction (originally discovered by Pavlov) come to apply here. 

I may not always do the behavior in the same way, it may generalize a bit. 

I learned with a certain type of reinforcement, but the nature of the reinforcement can also generalize. 

Skinner REDISCOVERED Discrimination, generalization ad extinction. 

Schedules of Reinforcement: 

Shaping

If you need to train a behavior TODAY, you will have to reinforce the behavior EVERY SINGLE TIME. You CANNOT miss a single instance. 

· you can learn something quickly, train someone quickly, by reinforcing overtime it occurs

· bad: since you trained it in such a way that it was reinforce EVERY time- this make the behavior more vulnerable to extinction. 

Partial Reinforcement: 

not reinforced every time, but every now and again I AM reinforced, and its a really good one. 

- When I am partially reinforced, I com to expect/wish that I will get the reinforcement THIS time. If I don’t I want it EVEN MORE. 

-Unpredictable REINFORCEMENT is associated with the behavior. I will do it ANYWAY, with a level of eagerness that this may be the moment.