Essay for my Psychology Class

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Psychology

CHAPTER12

Motivation

• Defining motivation

– An inferred process within a person or animal

that causes movement either toward a goal or

away from an unpleasant situation.

– Intrinsic motivation: The pursuit of an

activity for its own sake.

– Extrinsic motivation: The pursuit of an

activity for external rewards, such as money

or fame.

The Hungry Animal

• Motives to eat

– How much do genes, psychology, and the

environment affect our motivation to eat?

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set

point is.

• The genetics of weight

– Heavy people are no more or less emotionally

disturbed than average weight people.

– Heaviness is not always caused by

overeating.

– Set point C-level

• The genetically influenced weight range for an

individual; it is maintained by biological

mechanisms that regulate food intake, fat

reserves, and metabolism.

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set

point is.

• Body weight of twins

– Identical twins are more similar in body weight

than fraternal twins.

• Whether raised together or apart

– Genetic factors play a large role in body

weight.

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set

point is.

• The role of leptin

– Leptin alters the brain chemistry that

influences how animals eat as adults.

– Regulates weight by strengthening neural

circuits in hypothalamus that reduce appetite

and weakening neural circuits that strengthen

appetite.

– Has led to hypothesis that overfeeding infants

while hypothalamus is developing may

produce childhood obesity.

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set

point is.

• The complexity of weight

– Appetite suppressants alone often fail to help

individuals lose weight.

– Other factors

• Other genes and body chemicals

• Hormones which regulate hunger

• Receptors in nose, mouth, and stomach

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set

point is.

• The overweight debate

Weight or fitness?

Many researchers believe that individuals who

are overweight and physically fit are actually

healthier than individuals who are sedentary and

thin.

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.2 Discuss five major environmental influences on weight, and provide an example

of each.

• Environmental influences on weight

– Increased abundance of fast food

– Widespread consumption of high-sugar, high-

calorie soft drinks

– Sharp decline in exercise and other

expenditures of energy

– Increased portion sizes of food and drink

– Abundance of highly varied foods

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.2 Discuss five major environmental influences on weight, and provide an example

of each.

• Cultural attitudes

– In many cultures, where food is a rarer

commodity, fat is viewed as a sign of health and

affluence in men, sexual desirability in women.

– Although people of all ethnicities and social

classes have been getting heavier, the cultural

ideal for white women has been getting thinner.

– The cultural ideal for men has also changed.

• Muscles used to mean working class, now

muscular bodies symbolize affluence.

The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.3 Distinguish between anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, and discuss some

factors that contribute to each disorder.

• Eating disorders

– Bulimia: An eating disorder characterized by

episodes of excessive eating (bingeing)

followed by forced vomiting or use of laxatives

(purging).

– Anorexia nervosa: An eating disorder

characterized by fear of being fat, a distorted

body image, radically reduced consumption of

food, and emaciation.

The Social Animal LO12.4 Describe how passionate love, compassionate love, social bonding, and the action

of vasopressin and oxytocin all contribute to or understanding of the biology of love.

• The biology of love

– Neurological origins of passionate love begin in

infancy when infants attach to the mother.

– Certain neurotransmitters and hormones involved in

pleasure and reward are activated in mother-baby,

adult lover, and close friend bonds.

• Vasopressin, oxytocin, endorphins

– Functional fMRIs have shown other neurological

similarities.

• Certain parts of the brain activate when people look at

pictures of sweethearts and biological children.

The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.5 Explain how attachment theory can be applied to adult romantic relationships.

• The psychology of love

– Predictors of love

• Proximity: choosing friends and lovers from

the set of people who are closest to us

• Similarity: choosing friends and lovers who

are like us in looks, attitudes, beliefs,

personality, and interests

The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.5 Explain how attachment theory can be applied to adult romantic relationships.

• The attachment theory of love

– Like infants to their caregivers, adults have

attachment styles to their partners.

• Secure: rarely jealous or worried about

abandonment

• Avoidant: distrustful, avoids intimate attachments

• Anxious-ambivalent: agitated and worried partner

will leave

The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.5 Explain how attachment theory can be applied to adult romantic relationships.

• The ingredients of love

– Intimacy

• Based on deep knowledge of the other person,

which accumulates gradually

– Passion

• Based on emotion, which is generated by novelty

and change

– Commitment

The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.5 Explain how attachment theory can be applied to adult romantic relationships.

• The psychological factors of love

– Perception, by both partners, that the

relationship is fair, rewarding, and balanced.

– Motivation

• Positive: to enjoy affection and intimacy

• Negative: to avoid feeling insecure and lonely

The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.6 Summarize the research on gender differences and cultural differences in

romantic relationships.

• Gender, culture, love

– Males and females respond similarly to:

• Love at first sight

• Passionate love

• Companionate love

• Unrequited love

• Secure and insecure attachment

• Being the break-up recipient

The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.6 Summarize the research on gender differences and cultural differences in

romantic relationships.

• Gender, culture, love, cont’

– Men and women differ in how they express

love.

• Men–doing; women–saying

– Men and women used to have different goals

in choices of partners.

• Men–more romantic; women–more pragmatic

• As more women have become economically self-

sufficient, differences have decreased.

The Erotic Animal LO12.7 Describe how early efforts at sex research both illuminated and complicated our

views of human sexuality.

• Biology and desire

– Kinsey suggested that males and females had

similar orgasms.

– Masters and Johnson asserted that women’s

capacity for sexual responses surpassed

men’s.

• But didn’t examine differences based on

developmental, experiential, or cultural factors

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.7 Describe how early efforts at sex research both illuminated and complicated our

views of human sexuality.

• Hormones and sexual response

– Testosterone appears to promote sexual

desire in both sexes.

– However, this is not a simple relationship.

• Sexual behavior also increases testosterone.

• Psychological factors are usually more important

than hormones.

• Sexual offenders who are chemically castrated

don’t always lose sexual desires.

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.7 Describe how early efforts at sex research both illuminated and complicated our

views of human sexuality.

• Sex and the sex drive

– Physiological responses don’t always correlate

with subjective experiences.

– Psychologists still disagree on whether there are

sex differences in sex drive.

– Social psychologists suggest

• Males’ sexual behavior is more biologically determined.

• Females’ sexual desires and responsiveness are more

affected by circumstances, the specific relationship,

and cultural norms.

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.8 Describe how biology, culture, hormones, and expectations might all contribute

to findings regarding differences in the sexuality of women and men.

• The psychology of desire

– People’s motives for having sex affect many

aspects of their sexual behavior, including

whether they engage in sex in the first place.

– Extrinsic motives also come into play.

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.9 Discuss six motives for sex and three motives for rape.

• Motives for sex

– Pleasure

– Intimacy

– Insecurity

– Partner approval

– Peer approval

– Attaining a goal

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.9 Discuss six motives for sex and three motives for rape.

• Sexual coercion and rape

– Persistent gender differences occur in

perceptions of, and experiences with, sexual

coercion.

• Of a representative sample of 16,507 adults, 1 in 5

women said they had been raped or experienced

attempted rape at least once.

• Men also reported being victimized; 1 in 7 said

they had been severely beaten by a partner.

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.9 Discuss six motives for sex and three motives for rape.

• Motivations for rape

– Narcissism and hostility toward women

– A desire to dominate, humiliate, or punish the

victim

– Sadism

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.10 Explain the ways in which culture and gender contribute to sexual behavior and

expectations about that behavior.

• Culture of desire

– Sexual scripts

• Sets of implicit rules that specify proper sexual

behavior for a person in a given situation, varying

with the person’s gender, age, sexual orientation,

religion, social status, and peer group.

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.10 Explain the ways in which culture and gender contribute to sexual behavior and

expectations about that behavior.

• Biological explanations

– Prenatal exposure and androgens

– May be moderately heritable

The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.10 Explain the ways in which culture and gender contribute to sexual behavior and

expectations about that behavior.

• Difficulty in identifying causes

– Sexual identity and behavior are different and

occur in different combinations.

• Some individuals are sexually attracted to both

men and women.

• Some individuals are heterosexual in behavior but

have homosexual fantasies.

– Sexual behaviors can differ in different

cultures.

The Competent Animal LO12.11 Describe three conditions that make goal-setting and goal-achievement

successful, and distinguish between performance goals and mastery goals.

• Importance of goals

– Goals improve motivation when…

• the goal is specific.

• the goal is challenging but achievable.

• the goal is framed in terms of getting what you want rather

than avoiding what you do not want.

– Approach goals

• Goals framed in terms of desired outcomes or experiences,

such as learning to scuba dive.

– Avoidance goals

• Goals framed in terms of avoiding unpleasant experiences,

such as trying not to look foolish in public.

The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12.11 Describe three conditions that make goal-setting and goal-achievement

successful, and distinguish between performance goals and mastery goals.

• Types of goals

– Performance goals

• Goals framed in terms of performing well in front of

others, being judged favorably, and avoiding

criticism.

– Mastery (learning) goals

• Goals framed in terms of increasing one’s

competence and skills.

The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12.11 Describe three conditions that make goal-setting and goal-achievement

successful, and distinguish between performance goals and mastery goals.

• Mastery and motivation

The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12.12 Explain the elements of a self-fulfilling prophecy, and offer suggestions for how

to break that cycle.

– Self-fulfilling prophecy

• An expectation that comes

true because of the

tendency to act in ways

that bring it about.

– Self-efficacy

• A person’s belief that he or

she is capable of producing

desired results, such as

mastering new skills and

reaching goals.

• Expectations and self-efficacy

The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12.13 Describe how working conditions affect motives to achieve.

• Working conditions

– Conditions that increase job involvement,

motivation, and satisfaction

• Work provides a sense of meaningfulness

• Employees have control over part of their work

• Tasks are varied

• Employees have supportive relationships with

superiors and co-workers

• Employees receive useful feedback

• Company offers opportunities for growth

The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12.13 Describe how working conditions affect motives to achieve.

• Opportunities to achieve

– When a person

lacks a fair

chance to make

it, he or she may

be less than

successful.

Motives, Values, and the Pursuit of Happiness LO12.14 Discuss how accurate people are at estimating the type, duration, and extent of

their future emotions, and comment on what research indicates makes people happy.

• Motives, values,

and the pursuit

of happiness

Motives, Values, and the Pursuit of Happiness, cont’ LO12.15 Describe three types of motivational conflicts people often face, and give an

example of each.

• Motivational conflicts

– Approach–approach conflicts

• Occur when you are equally attracted to two or

more possible activities or goals

– Avoidance-avoidance conflicts

• Require you to choose between the lesser of two

evils because you dislike both alternatives

– Approach-avoidance conflicts

• Occur when a single activity or goal has both a

positive and a negative aspect

Motives, Values, and the Pursuit of Happiness, cont’ LO12.15 Describe three types of motivational conflicts people often face, and give an

example of each.

• How to attain your goals

– Seek activities that are intrinsically

pleasurable.

– Focus on learning goals, not only on

performance goals.

– Assess your working conditions.

– Take steps to resolve motivational conflicts.