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Psychology

CHAPTER10

Memory

Section

• Reconstructing the past

– Memory refers to the capacity to retain and

retrieve information, and also to the structures

that account for this capacity.

Reconstructing the Past LO10.1 Discuss some of the metaphors that have been used to describe memory, and

explain why the actual workings of memory are much more reconstructive.

• The manufacture of memory

– Memory is a reconstructive process.

– Source misattribution

• The inability to distinguish an actual memory of an

event from information you learned about the event

elsewhere.

Reconstructing the Past, cont’ LO10.1 Discuss some of the metaphors that have been used to describe memory, and

explain why the actual workings of memory are much more reconstructive.

• Flashbulb memories

– Some unusual, shocking, or tragic events hold

a special place in memory.

– Called flashbulb memories because of their

surprise, illumination, and photographic detail

– Even flashbulb memories have errors.

Reconstructing the Past, cont’ LO10.2 Describe three conditions under which confabulation is especially likely to occur.

• The conditions of confabulation

– Confabulation

• Confusion of an event that happened to someone else with

one that happened to you.

• A belief that you remember something when it never actually

happened.

– Confabulation is most likely when. . .

• you have thought, heard, or told others about the event many

times.

• the image of the event contains lots of details that make it

feel real.

• the event is easy to imagine.

Memory & Power of Suggestion LO10.3 Summarize the evidence indicating that eyewitness testimony can be susceptible

to memory errors.

• Memory and the power of suggestion

– The Eyewitness on Trial

• Eyewitnesses are not always reliable.

– Factors influencing accuracy

• Cross race identification

• Question wording (e.g., “crashed” vs “hit”)

• Misleading information

Memory & Power of Suggestion, cont’ LO10.4 Explain the conditions under which children might provide reliable versus

unreliable eyewitness testimony.

• Children’s testimony

– Under what conditions are children more

suggestible?

• When they are very young

• When interviewers’ expectations are clear

• When other children’s memories for events are

accessible

Memory & Power of Suggestion, cont’ LO10.4 Explain the conditions under which children might provide reliable versus

unreliable eyewitness testimony.

– When asked if a visitor

committed acts that had

not occurred, few 4 to 6-

year-olds said yes.

• 100% of 3-year-olds said

yes.

– When investigators used

techniques taken from real

child-abuse investigations,

most children said yes.

• Children’s testimony, cont’

In Pursuit of Memory LO10.5 Distinguish between recall and recognition tasks in the pursuit of explicit

memory.

• In pursuit of memory

– Explicit memory: Conscious, intentional

recollection of an event or item of information.

– Recall: The ability to retrieve and reproduce

from memory previously learned material

– Recognition: The ability to identify previously

encountered material

In Pursuit of Memory, cont’ LO10.6 Distinguish between priming and relearning in the pursuit of implicit memory.

• Implicit memory

– Unconscious retention in memory, as

evidenced by the effect of a previous

experience or previously encountered

information on current thoughts or actions.

In Pursuit of Memory, cont’ LO10.6 Distinguish between priming and relearning in the pursuit of implicit memory.

• Priming

– A person reads or listens to information and is

later tested to see whether the information

affects performance on another type of task.

In Pursuit of Memory, cont’ LO10.6 Distinguish between priming and relearning in the pursuit of implicit memory.

• Relearning method

– Compares the time required to relearn

material with the time used in the initial

learning of the material.

In Pursuit of Memory, cont’ LO10.7 Describe the basic characteristics of three memory systems, and note the

challenges to this view proposed by parallel distributed processing.

Three memory systems

In Pursuit of Memory, cont’ LO10.7 Describe the basic characteristics of three memory systems, and note the

challenges to this view proposed by parallel distributed processing.

• Parallel distributed processing (PDP)

– Model of memory in which knowledge is

represented as connections among

thousands of interacting processing units,

distributed in a vast network, and all operating

in parallel.

The Three-Box Model of Memory LO10.8 Explain the functions, duration, and location of the sensory registers in the three-

box model of memory.

• Sensory register: Fleeting impressions

– A memory system that momentarily preserves

extremely accurate images of sensory

information

The Three-Box Model of Memory, cont’ LO10.9 Explain the functions and duration of short-term memory, and contrast the leaky

bucket and working memory approaches to understanding this “box” of memory.

• Short-term memory – A limited-capacity memory system involved in the

retention of information for brief periods.

– Also used to hold information retrieved from long-term

memory for temporary use.

– Chunk: Meaningful unit of information that may be

composed of smaller units.

– Working memory: Involves active mental processes

that control retrieval of information from long-term

memory and interpret that information appropriately

for a given task.

The Three-Box Model of Memory, cont’ LO10.10 Describe what semantic categories are, and explain why they illustrate the

organization of long-term memory.

• Long-term memory

– The memory system involved in the long-term

storage of information.

– One way information is organized is in

semantic categories (e.g., animals).

The Three-Box Model of Memory, cont’ LO10.10 Describe what semantic categories are, and explain why they illustrate the

organization of long-term memory.

Conceptual grid

The Three-Box Model of Memory, cont’ LO10.10 Describe what semantic categories are, and explain why they illustrate the

organization of long-term memory.

• Tip-of-the-tongue states

– In addition to semantic categories, verbal

information in long-term memory is indexed

by sound and form, and it is retrievable on

that basis.

– Incorrect guesses often have the correct

number of syllables, the correct stress

pattern, the correct first letter, or the correct

prefix or suffix.

The Three-Box Model of Memory, cont’ LO10.11 Compare procedural, semantic, declarative, and episodic forms of memory.

Types of long-term

memory

The Three-Box Model of Memory, cont’ LO10.11 Compare procedural, semantic, declarative, and episodic forms of memory.

• Contents of long-term memory

– Procedural memories

• Memories for the performance of actions or skills

• “Knowing how”

– Declarative memories

• Memories of facts, rules, concepts, and events;

includes semantic and episodic memory

• “Knowing that”

The Three-Box Model of Memory, cont’ LO10.11 Compare procedural, semantic, declarative, and episodic forms of memory.

• Contents of long-term memory, cont’

– Semantic memories

• General knowledge, including facts, rules,

concepts, and propositions.

– Episodic memories

• Personally experienced events and the contexts in

which they occurred.

The Three-Box Model of Memory, cont’ LO10.12 Discuss how primacy and recency illustrate the serial-position effect in

transferring information from short-term to long-term memory.

• Serial position effect

The tendency for recall of first and last

items on a list to surpass recall of

items in the middle of the list.

Biology of Memory LO10.13 Outline the process of long-term potentiation in the formation of memories.

• The biology of memory

– Forming a memory involves chemical and structural

changes at the level of neurons.

• In short-term memory, changes within neurons temporarily

alter the neurons’ ability to release neurotransmitters.

• In long-term memory, long-term potentiation, a long-lasting

increase in the strength of synaptic responsiveness, occurs.

– Most researchers believe this is the process

underlying learning and memory, yet exact

biochemical changes still debated.

Biology of Memory, cont’ LO10.13 Outline the process of long-term potentiation in the formation of memories.

• Brain areas

involved with

memory

Biology of Memory, cont’ LO10.13 Outline the process of long-term potentiation in the formation of memories.

• Consolidation

– The process by which a long-term memory

becomes durable and relatively stable.

Biology of Memory, cont’ LO10.14 Evaluate the evidence that memories are not stored in any one “place” in the

brain.

• Where memories are made – During short-term memory tasks, areas of the frontal lobes

show activity.

– During long-term memory tasks, the hippocampus shows

activity.

– During encoding of pictures and words, the prefrontal

cortex and areas adjacent to the hippocampus show

activity.

– Procedural memories involve specific changes to the

cerebellum.

– The formation of long-term memories involves the cerebral

cortex.

Biology of Memory, cont’ LO10.15 Summarize the evidence that memory can be influenced by emotion and

hormonal levels.

• Hormones, emotion, and memory

– Hormones released by the adrenal glands

during stress and emotional arousal enhance

memory.

– These include epinephrine and

norepinephrine.

– Memory formation may also be affected by

the amount of glucose available in the brain.

How We Remember LO10.16 Describe some major strategies that contribute to memory retention, and give

an example of each.

• How we remember

– Mnemonics: Strategies and tricks for

improving memory, such as the use of a verse

or a formula.

How We Remember, cont’ LO10.16 Describe some major strategies that contribute to memory retention, and give

an example of each.

Effective

encoding

How We Remember, cont’ LO10.16 Describe some major strategies that contribute to memory retention, and give

an example of each.

• Rehearsal

– Maintenance rehearsal

• Rote repetition of material in order to maintain its

availability in memory.

– Elaborative rehearsal

• Association of new information with already stored

knowledge and analysis of the new information to

make it memorable.

How We Remember, cont’ LO10.16 Describe some major strategies that contribute to memory retention, and give

an example of each.

• Deep processing

– In the encoding of information, the processing

of meaning rather than simply the physical or

sensory features of a stimulus.

How We Remember, cont’ LO10.16 Describe some major strategies that contribute to memory retention, and give

an example of each.

How to

remember

better

Why We Forget LO10.17 Explain why an inability to forget information can be a burden to cognitive

processing.

• Why we forget

– Forgetting is adaptive.

– We need to forget some things if we wish to

remember efficiently.

– Mnemonics: Strategies and tricks for improving

memory, such as use of a verse or a formula

Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally

ROYGBIV

Thirty days hath September. . .

Why We Forget, cont’ LO10.17 Explain why an inability to forget information can be a burden to cognitive

processing.

• Forgetting curves

Why We Forget, cont’ LO10.18 Summarize the processes of decay, replacement, interference, and cue-

dependent forgetting.

• Decay

– The theory that information in memory

eventually disappears if it is not accessed.

– Applies better to short-term than long-term

memory.

Why We Forget, cont’ LO10.18 Summarize the processes of decay, replacement, interference, and cue-

dependent forgetting.

• Replacement

– The theory that new information entering

memory can wipe out old information

– In one study, researchers showed subjects

slides of a traffic accident. • The experimental group was misled into thinking there was a

stop sign instead of a yield sign.

• Even after being debriefed on the purpose of the study,

subjects insisted that they really saw the stop sign.

• The new information, which came from the researchers,

replaced what the subjects saw.

Why We Forget, cont’ LO10.18 Summarize the processes of decay, replacement, interference, and cue-

dependent forgetting.

• Interference