Motor Skills
4.1
Monday, October 12, 2015
11:06 AM
4.1 Three Elements Affecting Motor Skill Performance
The discipline of motor learning helps us understand the critical features necessary for a learner to develop skillful movement. According to Newell's theory of motor coordination, performance in motor skills is the product of a continually evolving dynamical organization of the human system (1986). When we perform any motor skill, be it as simple as using a spoon to eat breakfast or as complex as dribbling a soccer ball against a set of defenders, we use a number of movement patterns that we first learn, then use, refine, and change based on all of the factors that can affect skill performance.
Newell identified these factors as constraints and grouped them into task, environment, and individual (both functional and structural)demands (1984). It is important not to be misled about the term constraints. In this sense we are not referring to the traditional understanding of a restriction or a limitation. Rather a constraint is a particular characteristic that encourages certain movements at the same time as it discourages others. As an example, think of children as they jump over obstacles. As they grow, the individual constraints, such as increased height and weight, will have an impact on the ease (or difficulty) of the jumping task. From an environmental constraints perspective, dribbling ball with the feet indoors on a smooth surface is different from dribbling outside on grass. The idea of environmental constraints also relates to the equipment being used. A change in the size of a ball will have an impact on a child's ability to catch it. In terms of task constraints, think about a throwing task. If we ask children to throw a ball at a wall as hard as they can, we present a different form of constraint than if we ask them to throw accurately at a target.
It is important to understand that for any task, all of the constraints interact with each other to impact performance. Constraints influence performance changes as they cross the life span, and the task and environmental constraints can be manipulated by teachers to positively influence skill development in children (Renshaw et al., 2010). Figure 4.1 provides a schema of how you can think about this interaction. The figure refers to the individual as the learner, which is common in the physical education literature and will be the term we will use throughout the text.
Figure 4.1: Schema of constraints theory
Skill outcomes are impacted by the interaction of the task, environment, and learner.
Let's look more closely at this idea of interaction. If we ask a young child in the first grade (learner) to hit a ball (task) off a tee and provide them with a lightweight, fat-barreled bat (environment), we are setting them up for success. However, if we change the task to hitting a ball to a specific target, some children may struggle. Likewise, if we change the environment to one where the ball is being tossed to the batter instead of it being stationary, the percentage of successful children will change once again. Of course, either of these scenarios will produce different outcomes as a result of appropriate practice, which represents a change in the element of the learner.
The Individual, aka the Learner
When teaching children physical education, it is important not to overwhelm them. How does a game like T-ball set children up for success?
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For the learner, a number of factors come into consideration. The first, of course, is whether the learner has basic abilities necessary to perform the task. You will recall from Chapter 3 that an infant does not develop a palmar grasp until about six months of age, and the pincer grasp until about one year of age. Consequently, the ability to control a spoon to the extent that an infant can successfully pick up cereal is not something astute parents would expect of their youngsters until they are in their second year. With respect to the advanced soccer-dribbling task, even many adults do not have the requisite ability to control a ball well enough to successfully navigate through a defense. Both this case and that of eating with a spoon refer to the extent to which the task is developmentally appropriate. The National Association for Sport and Physical Education (2009) defines developmentally appropriate practices as "those that recognize children's development and changing movement abilities, as well as their individual differences" (p. 3), In a developmentally appropriate physical education program, teachers take account of and plan for all those factors that can affect a child's potential for success. These factors include their developmental status, previous experience and skill with the activity, and fitness level, as well as body size and age.
The second factor concerning the learner is their repertoire of similar experiences. For instance, those who may have reasonable skill when punting an American football may also have sufficient skill when first attempting to punt an Australian football. While the balls differ slightly in shape, size, and pressure, the underlying mechanics of the punt are not too dissimilar. Referring back to the infant learning to use a spoon, the more experiences they have had grasping similar objects (e.g., teething rings, rattles, or hairbrushes) may enhance their attainment of the fine control skills required for feeding themselves.
Motivation is the third feature that affects a learner's skill acquisition. We all enjoy participating in some skills more than others, and even in our adult years our propensity or interest to learn certain skills will differ. For example, learning to water-ski involves a complex combination off balance, timing, and strength that takes time to master. Similarly, learning to put the necessary spin on a bowling ball to become an expert bowler takes considerable time and dedication. The point here is that the motivation for people to learn and master a skill varies. Some people might not try to become competent water skiers because they do not think it is an important skill to learn. Others who have family or friends who water-ski might want to learn so they can join in on the activity. With reference to our bowling scenario, many people either do not play often enough or are simply happy to bowl using their own style rather than spending the time practicing the advanced skills required to bowl with a spin.
The last factor that can affect skill acquisition is the individual's physique and body composition. Various body-control skills, such as tumbling or rolling, are easier to perform for those with shorter limbs, while those with longer limbs might find hurdling easier. When planning lessons, you need to be aware of potential modifications of tasks that will allow all children to be successful.
Normal Motor Skill Development in Children
As children develop, they acquire certain physical skills; for example, babies learn to crawl and pull themselves up to a standing position before they can walk. How can parents and instructors help children discover skills at their own pace?
The Environment
Children don't develop motor skills in the same ways due to different body types and coordination. Some children kick balls well yet struggle at throwing and catching, and vice versa.
David P. Hall/Corbis
The environment relates to the context in which that task will take place. For instance, the physical education gym or motor skills room may consist of wood, composite, tile, or carpet flooring. The outside playground may be grassy, sandy, muddy, smooth, or full of holes (or, in other areas, fire-ant mounds!). The temperature, lighting, and weather can also affect movement. On hot and humid days, some children may struggle with their motivation to be active, while for others these conditions have no impact at all (Gagen & Getchell, 2006).
The Task
Every movement task we set for children has a set of characteristics that delineate the outcomes. These characteristics consist of the goals for the task, the rules the child must stay within, and the equipment being used while practicing. As Gagen and Getchell (2006) note, these characteristics provide a framework or "range of task-dependent, acceptable and possible movements" (p. 229). The Cases From the Classroom: Sample Task Presentations box provides two examples of how these characteristics are represented in a teacher's task presentation.
Cases From the Classroom: Sample Task Presentations
Mr. Guzman is teaching his kindergarten class how to throw while standing still. Before his class starts, he places Poly Spots along the wall to help his students stay in one place and maintain space between one another. Once all his students arrive, he gives the following task presentation before they begin to practice.
Task 1: Throwing with force from a stationary position (kindergarten)
"I want you to take your yarn ball [equipment], and stand on one of the Poly Spots in front of the wall. From the Poly Spot [rule], we are going to throw overhand as hard as possible [goal]. See if you can even make a hole in the wall! Keep throwing until you hear the signal to stop [rule]."
Mr. Guzman's next class consists of fourth graders who are working on their volleying skills. He asks his students to quickly find a partner and provides them with the following task presentation to start the lesson.
Task 2: Continuous one-bounce volleying against a wall with a partner (fourth grade)
"Start with one partner making an underhand serve [rule] to the wall, and on the rebound, let the ball bounce [rule] before the second partner volleys the ball back to the wall [task]. Try to keep the ball above the line [goal]. When the ball [equipment] comes back, it will be the server's turn to volley after the bounce. See how many you can make that go above the line [goal]."
With respect to the task to be performed, three factors may have an impact on its difficulty and hence the likelihood of successful completion. The first of these relates to whether the task requires manipulating or managing any equipment. While locomotor skills such as running, jumping, leaping, and swimming involve whole-body movements only, manipulative tasks require the performer to control not only their body but also an external object. The extent of the dexterity required for that manipulation will have an effect on the probability of success. Nonetheless, even in cases where manipulation is not required, some tasks require complex body movements. Consider the movements performed by skilled gymnasts or ice skaters. These require changes in various pathways, levels, and directions, often with speed, while retaining an element of great aesthetic presentation.
Two other key elements of a task are its predictability and its time demands. Predictability relates to the extent to which the performer can expect the environment they are in to be stable and relatively constant. When performing a long jump into a pit, the environment is essentially the same during each attempt. The jumper can measure their run up and begin from the same point each time. Further, the takeoff board is stable and remains the same length from the pit. Likewise, a swimmer in a pool can focus entirely on their stroke mechanics and breathing. Compare this situation to one where a student is practicing the entry into a jump rope being turned by two classmates. In this case, the turning rope presents a much less predictable environment, particularly when the rope is turning away from the jumper. Even more unpredictable would be the environment presented in a basketball game. In this case, there is a constant movement of players and the ball, and players can move from offensive to defensive goals in an instant. The only part of basketball that is high in predictability occurs when a player is taking free throws. In Chapters 5 and 6 there are many sample tasks you can use in your future teaching. These are described as whether they are predictable or less predictable.
The environment plays a large role in the success of physical activities. How do factors like predictability and timing affect the way children perform in a sport like swimming?
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In terms of time demands, a task may be either self-paced or externally paced. That is, in self-paced tasks, the performer can decide when they want to initiate the task. Think of tenpin bowling or another target game like golf. The task does not require you to bowl or hit at a certain time. In contrast, externally paced tasks are those where the nature of the environment strongly influences when you act. In most invasion games, such as basketball or soccer, the timing of your passes, dribbles, and shots is dependent on the actions of your teammates or the opposition. Similarly, batters in striking and fielding games, such as cricket and baseball, have to respond to the bowl or pitch as it is delivered to them. In Chapters 5 and 6, the sample tasks are also arranged according to the extent to which they are self- or externally paced.
These task constraints are considered the most important for physical educators. Anytime the teacher can modify the task and the implements used, the size of the playing area or the rules of a game will positively impact student learning. Further, as Williams, David's, and Williams (1999) note, task constraints play a powerful role in influencing learners' motivation. One aspect of a task is whether it takes place in a predictable or constantly changing environment. The next section will describe a classification system that further develops this idea.
Open/Closed Classification System
A skill that occurs in an environment that does not change from attempt to attempt, and where the performer can make their action plan before they make their movement, is known as a closed skill. In closed skills, the main concern for the learner is the development of good technique that will allow them to reproduce that skill over and over in the same way. Think about playing darts. The action of sending the dart to the board will be the same for each throw, with the only difference being the exact target number on the board. Consistency in closed skills is a major point of emphasis.
Where a skill occurs in an environment that is continually changing, this is known as an open skill. Open skills require adaptations "on the run, "often with very little time for strategic planning. Consider two players in a wrestling match. While both have their own tactics and skills in mind, they have to not only attempt to put these into play but also adjust to the moves of their opponent and the ways in which that opponent counteracts their own moves.
It is important to understand that closed and open skills should be thought of as lying on a continuum rather than being simply classified as purely closed or open. It is also important to note that no skill is completely closed. Think of skating alone on a lake versus skating on a crowded ice rink. While the fundamental locomotor skills are essentially the same, the perceptual and decision-making tasks on the ice rink are far more complex and demanding than when skating alone in an open space. Figure 4.2 gives further examples of this idea.
Figure 4.2: A continuum of closed and open skills
Closed and open skills should be viewed as part of a continuum, with closed or predictable skills on one end, semi
predictable skills in the middle, and open or unpredictable skills on the other end.
The Three Elements Together: Gentile's Multidimensional Classification System
Gentile (2000) offers an explanation for how the characteristics of the environment and of the task interact to place certain demands on the learner. Gentile asks us to consider the regulatory conditions and the action requirements of each task. The regulatory conditions relate to the environment and its level of predictability and/or stability. Similar to the concept of closed/open skills, the first consideration is whether the environment is stable or perhaps in motion. For example, is the basketball player shooting a free throw (environment is stable) or engaged inactive play during a game (environment is in motion)? In terms of stability, the regulatory conditions might remain fixed or may vary. Consider a baseball player. When warming up, the goal might be to hit the ball off a tee (fixed stability). However, during the game, the opposing pitcher is trying to deceive him with changes of speed and movement of the ball (varying stability).
The action requirements of a task refer to whether the performer is stationary or moving and/or if they are required to manipulate an objector attend to an opponent. Table 4.1 provides examples of all these combinations.
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Table 4.1: Examples of activities in various elements of Gentile's system |
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Regulatory Conditions |
Action Requirements |
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Neither body transport nor object manipulation |
Object manipulation only |
Body transport only |
Both body transport and object manipulation |
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Stationary and fixed |
Marching in place |
Throwing adapt |
Swimming laps in a pool |
Throwing a javelin |
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Stationary and variable |
Drawing letters in the sand |
Playing putt putt |
Completing a walkthrough in football practice |
Performing an ice dance with a partner |
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Moving and fixed |
Riding down a water slide |
Playing with a yoyo |
Running up stairs |
Walking on stilts on an open space |
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Moving and variable |
Riding an inner tube down a flowing stream |
Volleying a hacky sack |
Rollerblading on a congested pathway |
Riding a bicycle in heavy traffic |
From <https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUPED212.12.1/sections/sec4.1>