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Chapter 8
The Digital Society
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Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to complete the following:
Explain issues with privacy, pornography, and piracy on the Web. Summarize how money can be made online and provide examples. Define virtual communities and list examples. Explain the relationship between online and onground education. Summarize the relationship between computing, information, and the law. List some trends of globalization and the role of computing in those trends.
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Introduction Are you a digital native? According to John Palfrey and Urs Gasser, authors of a book titled Born Digital, if you were born after 1980, then you are (Palfrey & Gasser, 2008). They believed 1980 was an important turning point because of the rise of the personal computer and software applications. What started with spreadsheets and word processors evolved into more complex digital interactions such as friendships, social relationships, and even civic activities, all taking place through (or mediated by) a computer. Those who were born before 1980 can still become a part of this digital society, and they have an important vantage point because they have had the opportunity to watch the changes evolve. However, if they remain on the outside and do not take part in this new world, then they are often a step behind in school or the workplace. In the 21st century, this digital society is growing larger each day, with new computing tools designed to become more and more embedded into our lives. Because we cannot afford to live outside of this digital society, we all must become as comfortable with it as digital natives. In this chapter, we will look at both the positive and negative aspects of digital society, as well as the many ways in which the digital society parallels prevalent issues in our real life society. Of course "society" is a vast and multifaceted subject. So, we are going to narrow this topic to five main areas: our concepts of privacy, law, economy, community, and education. These five subjects become the central theme of our chapter on the digital society. And we end our discussion here by exploring the associated globalization of this digital society.
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The ability to store information digitally is useful but can also present privacy issues. What solutions can you think of to prevent unauthorized people from accessing your personal information?
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8.1 Privacy, Pornography, and Piracy The computer is neither good nor evil. In itself, it has no morals, positive or negative, because it is simply a machine. As with any other tool, such as a hammer or a gun, the morals of the user shape its functions. In the hands of a carpenter, a hammer can be used to build a shelter for the homeless. In the hands of a thief, a hammer can be used to break a window of that same home and jeopardize the security of its inhabitants. In this regard, a computer is much like a hammer. It can be used for good as well as evil. When we see examples of computers threatening society, do not blame the computer. Blame the person sitting at the keyboard. To protect ourselves from those who wish to use computers to infringe upon our rights, knowledge is the best defense. If we can understand aspects of this dark side of computing—such as privacy, piracy, and pornography—we will be better prepared to live safely in our digital society.
Privacy
The amount of data collected about you is staggering. You leave a digital fingerprint every time you use your credit card, borrow a library book, go to the doctor, rent a movie, bank online, apply for a job, email, blog, and use Facebook. You are aware that many people will see some of this information, such as what you post on a blog. It is intended to be public. But other information is extremely private, such as your bank account login code, and therefore, the unauthorized access of personal information is a serious threat. How can you protect yourself and preserve your privacy?
How to Permanently Erase Data
The first step is to safeguard your personal computer (Tynan, 2005). One thing you should be aware of is that when you delete a file, it is not really gone. The data still exists in your computer's hard disk (or other type of magnetic media like a flash drive). Deleting a file simply tells the computer that if it needs more storage, it can use that space. But it may not do so. So, when you go to sell or throw away your computer, you could be leaving a wealth of data for an identity thief to easily uncover. There are several solutions for this. First, if you are junking your computer, you can take out the hard drive, get a hammer (wear safety glasses), and literally destroy it. Second, if you are selling or donating your computer, you can delete all the files on your hard drive and then make one large Word file with lots of pictures and copy it over and over until your hard drive is full. This will write over all of your data. A third solution is to purchase a software program such as Active@Kill Disk Hard Drive Eraser, which will permanently delete anything you want to erase from your hard drive.
Backing up Files
At the opposite end of the spectrum from permanently erasing data is making sure that you are saving it, which is known as backing up files. Hard drives are known to fail from time to time, so it is essential to periodically back up your files, or save your data to a different location. There are several ways to do this. You can purchase an external hard drive (typically with a USB connection) that can be set up to automatically back up your data at a certain time every day (typically in the early morning hours when you are not working on the computer). This way, if something happens to your internal hard drive, all your data can be restored from your backup external drive. The other benefit is that an external drive is portable, so you can easily transport all of your information if you are away from your home computer. The downside is that if there is a physical catastrophe to your computing environment (fire, water damage, and so on), both your internal and external data will be lost. For this reason, offsite storage (called cloud storage—to be discussed further in Chapter 9) is essential, so if your computer is destroyed, you can easily retrieve all of your information.
Another offsite storage option is Google Drive™ with the first 5 GB given to you for free. Once installed on your phone or mobile device, files can be placed and accessed on any device that has Google Drive™. Files can also be edited on the Web, allowing you to collaborate with others.
Apple® has a similar product with its iCloud®, which backs up all of your data (5 GB of free storage with an option to purchase more) on your iPhone®, iPad®, or iPod Touch®. It can also backup files on a mobile device.
Log‐In Protection
Another privacy concern is that someone might break into a computer that you currently use and steal data. You should require a strong password (discussed in Chapter 5.2) to log in to your account, but this is sometimes not enough protection against a skilled data thief. One solution is a small device, often found in large organizations, that updates your password every 30 seconds. You carry around a keychain device, called a security token, and when you want to log in, you enter the current password shown on the security token.
How to Encrypt Files
Another solution is to encrypt your most sensitive files. Encryption is like a secret code for your data, and only your computer has the key to unscramble the code. So, if someone manages to break into your computer and copy your files, when he opens them again later, he or she will see nothing but useless garbage information. To encrypt a file in Windows® 7, simply right‐click the file or folder, select Properties, click the General tab, and select Advanced. Then, select Encrypt Contents to Secure
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Data and press OK. You will then get an encryption certificate that should be backed up, because if you lose it, you will not be able to decrypt your own files.
A Look Further: Encryption Tools
However, there are third‐party encryption tools you can also use. Here are the top five, as chosen by Life Hacker:
http://lifehacker.com/5677725/five%E2%80%90 best%E2%80%90file%E2%80%90encryption %E2%80%90tools18 (http://lifehacker.com/5677725/five%E2%80%90best%E2%80%90file%E2%80%90encryption%E2%80%90tools18) .
Virus Protection
We all know what a human virus is, and that is why we cringe when someone sneezes too close to us. A computer virus is something similar, and we should take precautions to protect ourselves. In 1948, John von Neumann was the first to suggest that a programmer could create a computer virus by writing a program that replicated itself (or made unauthorized copies without human intervention). Hundreds of thousands of viruses now exist, and your computer can become infected when you download software, open your email, or copy an infected file onto your computer. Downloading is a term used to describe the process of bringing information that exists somewhere on the Internet onto your home computer. Although this is a powerful feature for accessing and using software and information, downloading is also risky because of the possibility that the data might contain a virus. It can only take a few minutes for an unprotected computer to become infected with a virus (Lehtinen, Gangemi, & Russell, 2006, p. 6). Data thieves use automated tools that constantly probe the Internet for vulnerable computers, so do not let yours be one.
One way to lessen this threat is antivirus software, which works in two ways. First, it references a vast virus dictionary of all known ways to infect a computer. The antivirus program compares and contrasts code in your computer with this database. If there is a match, it tries to remove or quarantine it. Second, the antivirus software looks for unusual behavior from the computer that could be the work of a virus, such as a program that tries to write an executable file. This is a program that can initiate a series of wanted actions, like word.exe to launch Word for Windows®, or unwanted actions in the case of a virus. For more on how viruses work, see Antivirus World: http://www.antivirusworld.com/articles/antivirus.php (http://www.antivirusworld.com/articles/antivirus.php) .
A number of virus protection options are available, including Webroot® Secure Anywhere Antivirus, Norton® AntiVirus, Bitdefender Antivirus Plus, and Kaspersky Anti‐ Virus.
There are also a number of free antivirus tools, which are powerful alternatives for students on a budget. These include:
Panda Cloud Anti‐Virus AVG Anti‐Virus Free Avira Free Antivirus
In 2013, the Top Ten Reviews website ranked Bitdefender the best antivirus product, followed by Kaspersky, and Norton® (http://anti‐virus‐software‐ review.toptenreviews.com/best‐antivirus‐software‐for‐2013.html (http://anti‐virus‐software‐review.toptenreviews.com/best‐antivirus‐software‐for‐2013.html) ).
Security Software
The best protection is to install a security software suite on your computer. One example is McAfee® Total Protection Service. This actually includes multiple programs to help keep you safe. The first is virus and spyware protection. Spyware is a secret program that gathers information about you in the background of your computer and then shares it with another person. This type of information might be advertising, personal data, or even ways to change how your computer is configured. Such a program is also called malware (mal means "bad"). Spyware can change the home page of your browser, it can adjust settings so it becomes very difficult to change it back, and it can also cause computer crashes. Microsoft®, at its Safety & Security Center, has an excellent overview of the dangers of spyware and how to prevent it. The following is a detailed article from Microsoft® on how to prevent spyware: http://www.microsoft.com/security/pc‐security/spyware‐prevent.aspx (http://www.microsoft.com/security/pc‐security/spyware‐prevent.aspx) .
It is very important to understand that spyware and malware is not a virus, and antivirus programs do not detect spyware. Therefore, it is essential that any protection suite you purchase has both antivirus and spyware protection. And it should also have a firewall.
A second type of program is firewall protection that will block malicious attacks on your computer from outside threats (see Chapter 5, Section 5.2 for more on this). But, as referenced, the Microsoft® Safety & Security Center also has some excellent firewall tips here, too. The bottom line is that if you have a computer connected to the Internet, or to another computer, or if you share files with anyone else (and there are very few computers which do not meet at least one of these criteria) then you need protection. This includes a hardware and software firewall.
A third is browser protection. This includes a list of unsafe websites that might contain viruses or other privacy issues related to your computer, so when you browse the Web, you will see a green check mark if the site is clean. Programs like this from McAfee® all require that you pay ongoing subscriptions for the service. A subscription like this will give you the latest updates because new threats are developed all the time. If you buy virus protection once and do not renew it, you are inviting an attack.
The Purpose of Viruses
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Security expert Mikko Hypponen explains why viruses are created, how they work, and the frightening ways criminals benefit from them. Do you currently have up‐to‐date virus software? What would you need to do to fully protect your computer?
AP Photo/The Medford Mail Tribune/Bob Pennell
Pornography
There are other dark sides of the digital society that may not pose a direct threat to your own data, but you should be aware of them if you have an underage child in the house with computer access. It is somewhat difficult to get accurate statistics on the use of pornography. It is not like the movie industry where tickets can be easily counted. In contrast, no national organization is tracking how many people click on a pornographic image. But, there are some important statistics that convey the massive amounts of pornographic material online. According to Morality in the Media (founded in 1962, it is one of the leading national organizations opposing pornography and indecency), 12 percent of all websites are pornographic. Over 40 million Americans regularly visit porn sites. Each day, 2.5 billion emails have a pornographic message (8 percent of all emails sent). One out of every four search engine requests is pornographic (http://pornharmsresearch.com/infographic‐porn‐ addiction‐in‐america‐statistics/ (http://pornharmsresearch.com/infographic‐porn‐addiction‐in‐america‐statistics/) ).
And many social networks can be used to engage in something known as cybersex, defined as virtual sex using text functions to chat between two real people. Now, this also includes sharing photos or videos in various stages of undress. While this might have been consensual when a relationship was in progress, after a messy breakup, disgruntled partners sometimes post the private photos as a hurtful act of vengeance.
Children are also exposed to Internet pornography at a young age. In fact, the average age of first exposure is 11 (http://www.mykidsbrowser.com/pornography_stats.php (http://www.mykidsbrowser.com/pornography_stats.php) ). This happens through intentional and accidental online exposure. It is easy to mistype a word and suddenly be in a part of the Web that is for adults only. The pornography industry is big business, generating revenues that rival the mainstream film industry in Hollywood. It is not going away. What is the solution? If you want to control access to this type of material, there are software applications called antipornography filters. Examples include NetDogSoft's Anti‐Porn Filter, which attempt to block sites of this nature from appearing on your computer. However, it is important to realize that no Web filter is 100 percent effective in blocking pornography.
Piracy
We have all heard stories about pirates with names like Blackbeard who sailed the seas. They would find unsuspecting and unprotected ships, board them, and steal all of their property. Something similar occurs in the world of computing. Data is also known as intellectual property. This term refers to the creativity behind everything from songs to books and even computer programs. In the digital era, this intellectual property is reduced to a stream of zeros and ones in a computer. While this is great for our access, it also makes intellectual property vulnerable to unauthorized and easy reproduction. If you purchase a music CD, copy it in large quantities and then sell the copies to all of your friends, then you are guilty of copyright infringement and have violated intellectual property rights. In other words, you are a pirate! This is a significant issue. According to the Business Software Alliance (BSA), 62% of all software in Central and Eastern Europe is pirated, compared with 60 percent in the Asia Pacific region. The United States had the lowest piracy rate at 19 percent (http://globalstudy.bsa.org/2011/ (http://globalstudy.bsa.org/2011/) ).
Copyright is a significant issue on the Internet in part because it is so easy to make digital copies of music, books, images, movies, and other material. However, just because something is easy to do does not make it lawful or ethical. Therefore, a number of
Purpose of Viruses From Title: TEDTalks: Mikko Hypponen—Fighting Viruses, Def...
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As computer‐related copyright violations increase, law enforcement agencies are working hard to shut down illegal download sites and distributors of pirated media. Do you think computer piracy can be stopped? Why or why not?
organizations (as well as governments) are working to reduce and prevent the illegal copying of information. One example is the Association for the Protection of Internet Copyright (APIC). Its mission is to educate the world about Internet copyright law, and enforce that law (see: http://www.a‐w.org/Home.html (http://www.a‐w.org/Home.html) ).
Peer‐to‐Peer Piracy
One famous example of intellectual property theft was the Internet site called Napster. It used what is known as peer‐to‐peer (sometimes written as P2P) file sharing that enabled millions of people to download copyrighted songs for free on their computers. When you logged in, Napster took note of all the music files on your computer. These became a part of the Napster database and enabled its community to download them from you. In turn, you had the ability to browse and download anyone else's music. Record companies and musicians banded together and filed a lawsuit against Napster. They won the case, and Napster was charged with copyright infringement. The website still exists, but you now have to pay for the songs that you download.
The next generation of P2P file sharing services is the torrent. The torrent is often an illegal service that enables the sharing of copyrighted materials such as software, music, and movies. Notorious examples are The Pirate Bay and ISOHunt. Each of these has roughly twelve million unique monthly visitors ("Top 15 Most Popular Torrent Sites," 2013).
Law Enforcement and Cyber Crimes
Cyber crimes, or crimes associated with computers connected to the Internet, are closely policed and prosecuted by the United States government. The U.S. Department of Justice has a Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section that is responsible for finding those individuals who are abusing the powers of computers and breaking the law (see link here (http://www.justice.gov/criminal/cybercrime/index.html) ). It specifically investigates illegal hacking into private computers, the theft of private data, and violations of copyright and intellectual property laws. It works with a variety of partners, including other governments, private companies, and universities, to find violators and also propose new legislation to protect law‐abiding citizens from cyber crimes that include computer intrusion (hacking), password trafficking, counterfeiting of currency, child pornography and exploitation, Internet fraud, spam, Internet harassment, Internet bomb threats, and trafficking in explosive or incendiary devices or firearms over the Internet. Intellectual property crimes include copyright piracy, trademark counterfeiting, and the theft of trade secrets.
Cyberwarfare and Cyberterrorism
What will the battlefields of the future look like? If World War I was the trench, World War II was the amphibious assault, and Vietnam was the jungle, then what is warfare in the 21st century like? Certainly conventional warfare still exists, however, cyberwarfare is an increasingly significant threat in the future. Consider that in June 2012, the U.S. Air Force graduated its first elite cyberspace task force. Designed to emulate the Navy's famous Top Gun program (elite fighter pilots), these new computer savvy warriors, who trained at Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada, learned how to defend American computer databases and infrastructure, track down those that seek to do it harm, and plan and execute their own cyber attacks. Already there have been attacks on this front, allegedly by United States and Israeli cyber forces attempting to destroy key elements of Iran's nuclear capability. In fact, the U.S. Cyber Command commenced in 2008 and is integrated within the National Security Agency. In total, the Air Force spends $4 billion per year on these cyber programs. Likewise, the Navy trains 24,000 individuals each year at its Center for Information Dominance (Barnes, 2012).
Crimeware
There is actually software created for use by criminals. One example is ransomware, which is a program that lets a criminal enter in stolen data, where it is encrypted. The criminal can then hold the data "ransom," telling the victim they can have it back once they pay a ransom fee. For example, in February 2013, police in Europe arrested eleven people for a ransomware scam that affected thousands of people. It works by making a program look like it comes from a legitimate law enforcement agency telling the user they must pay a fine for some alleged offense. The fine can be paid online, and when the user does so, the criminals gain access to the computer and can steal data ("Police hold 11 over ransomware scam 'affecting thousands'," 2013).
A Real Cyber Threat to America
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Richard Clarke, head of U.S. Cyber Defense, describes what could happen in the event of a cyber attack on the United States. Does this video change your ideas about what cyberterrorism is?
Creative Commons
It is important to learn how to protect yourself if you are the creator of online content. If you are an artist, musician, or writer, you want people to see and hear your creative products. Sharing is essential. But you also do not want your intellectual property to be used inappropriately, nor do you want to use other people's work illegally. One option is the traditional copyright, and another is available from Creative Commons (http://creativecommons.org/ (http://creativecommons.org/) ). This nonprofit organization has developed an electronic "commons"—a vast body of work that is available for legal sharing and remixing. Authors and artists can submit their work with copyright terms attached, such as "all rights reserved," "some rights reserved," or "no rights reserved."
In conclusion, the dark side of the Internet will always be with us. If you arm yourself with knowledge, install advanced software protection, and license your intellectual property, you should have a safe experience. We will now turn to more positive ways in which computers are reshaping society in areas such as business, community life, and education.
Questions to Consider
1. Is the computer a good or an evil machine? 2. What are some of the main computer privacy issues you should be aware of? 3. Does deleting a file on your computer permanently erase it? 4. What is encryption? 5. How do you protect your computer against viruses? 6. What threats does Internet pornography pose? 7. What is computer piracy?
A Real Cyber Threat to America From Title: Cyber Wars: The Hacker as Hero
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8.2 Making Money Online Are you interested in using your computer to earn some money? Imagine this scenario. You turn on your computer one morning to see an email from a Nigerian bank official who claims that because of some strange overpayment, the bank has a lot of extra money. The only problem is that in order for the bank to maintain the funds, the money has to leave the country for a period of time. The Nigerian bank official then compliments you in the email because of your known trustworthiness, promising that if you agree to simply hold these funds at your bank, you will receive a large percentage of the money for your minimal effort. Who would have suspected that making money online was going to be this easy? Sometimes hundreds of thousands of dollars are promised.
If you reply to the email from the Nigerian banker and express interest in his proposal, this is what usually happens. The official is, of course, delighted you want to help, and says that all you need to do is take care of some advanced fees or a bond, or transfer taxes, and so forth. This is a small amount at first, but gradually more small demands for money up front are made. Eventually, you realize that the Nigerian bank official does not live in Nigeria, nor is he a banker. This business transaction is actually an Internet fraud, and you have been scammed out of your money with no recourse. Estimates by the Secret Service claimed that more than $100 million was lost to Nigerian letter scams in 2001 (Mintz, 2002, p. 115).
The FBI website is actually a great place to keep up to date with the latest scams on the Internet. By visiting this site, http://www.fbi.gov/scams‐ safety/fraud/internet_fraud (http://www.fbi.gov/scams‐safety/fraud/internet_fraud) , you can learn tips for avoiding Internet auction fraud, investment fraud, business fraud, credit card fraud, non‐delivery of merchandise fraud, and of course the classic Nigerian fraud. The FBI lists these common types of frauds in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Common scams
Scam Type Examples
Fraud Scams Telemarketing Fraud Nigerian Letter or "419" Fraud Identity Theft Advance Fee Schemes Health Care Fraud/Health Insurance Fraud Redemption/Strawman/Bond Fraud
Investment‐Related Scams Letter of Credit Fraud Prime Bank Note Fraud Ponzi Schemes Pyramid Schemes
Internet Scams Internet Auction Fraud Non‐Delivery of Merchandise Credit Card Fraud Investment Fraud Business Fraud Nigerian Letter or "419" Fraud
Frauds Targeting Senior Citizens Health Care Fraud/Health Insurance Fraud Counterfeit Prescription Drugs Funeral and Cemetery Fraud Fraudulent Anti‐aging Products Telemarketing Fraud Investment Schemes Reverse Mortgage Scams
Source: http://www.fbi.gov/scams‐safety/fraud (http://www.fbi.gov/scams‐safety/fraud)
The point is not that all Internet commerce is fraudulent. You can make money in legitimate online transactions. But as in all areas of life, especially where money is concerned, you have to be careful and know what you are doing. In this section, we will discuss some of these real Web‐based business activities.
E‐commerce
The name for making money with online transactions is called e‐commerce. The "e" stands for electronic, and commerce means doing business. E‐commerce occurs when goods or services are marketed, bought, and sold through the Internet. As an individual, you might engage in e‐commerce when you purchase a book online from Amazon.com. People who sell goods on eBay™, which is an Internet auction site, are also involved in e‐commerce. Large organizations are also moving in this direction. In a B2B (also known as a business‐to‐business) transaction, bills can be paid online, money transferred, and goods shipped and received, all with a few mouse clicks. E‐ commerce is growing by the day, and very few businesses are not involved in some type of activity on this front. You will often hear about companies that sell only through e‐commerce. They can be compared with bricks and mortar stores, or those that have an actual storefront you can walk into. You will find many of the elements of a real store in an online store. For example, online stores use an icon of a shopping cart that you fill up with your goods. When you are done shopping, you
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go to the checkout page and then pay by credit card.
Even onground banks are taking advantage of the new electronic world. Many banks now have mobile applications that allow people who have an account to deposit checks from their smartphones or mobile devices. Smartphone users can even use their devices to swipe credit cards and take payment for products or services.
Technology Today: E‐Commerce Issues
To get an idea of how integral computers have become to the world's economy, consider the e‐commerce sales data from the U.S. Census. It stated that the second quarter of 2012 alone consisted of $51.2 billion in e‐commerce transactions. Another important figure is the percentage of e‐ commerce to overall retail sales. In 2012, e‐commerce represented roughly 5 percent of all sales.
Figure 8.1: Total and e‐commerce retail sales, 2012
Adapted from: Thomas, I., et al. (2013). Quarterly retail e‐commerce sales: 1st quarter 2013. U.S. Census Bureau news. U.S. Department of Commerce. Retrieved from: http://www.census.gov/retail/mrts/www/data/pdf/ec_current.pdf (http://www.census.gov/retail/mrts/www/data/pdf/ec_current.pdf)
The convenience factor—the ability to make a purchase without leaving home—is a big advantage for online retailers when it comes to attracting customers. But these merchants increasingly are taking advantage of technological advancements to make their electronic stores even more appealing.
This is displacing some very old types of business. For example, online discount sites like priceline.com, cheaptickets.com, travelocity.com, hotels.com, and expedia.com are replacing the work once done by local travel agents.
Smartphones and 2‐D Barcodes
As Sucharita Mulpuru, an e‐commerce analyst with Forrester Research, told Internet Retailer magazine, "The online shopping experience is getting to be more fun . . . You can create outfits online, you can share products with others, you can read customer opinions on topics; you can watch videos. It's a much more immersive experience than ever before, and that engages people" (Davis, 2010).
The appeal of e‐commerce will become even greater as more consumers adopt smartphones. These devices allow consumers to have the same interactive shopping experience that they currently enjoy on their PCs. With smartphones, however, they can have this experience anywhere at any time—at home, at work, or on vacation.
Several technology vendors are experimenting with a new type of bar code designed specifically for conducting e‐commerce via mobile phones. These 2‐D bar codes represent an advance over the black‐and‐white striped codes affixed to virtually all merchandise in traditional retail stores today. These newer bar codes, because they store data in two dimensions, can contain much more information.
For purposes of e‐commerce, website addresses are the key pieces of information being placed on 2‐D bar codes.
Microsoft® ran a pilot program to test consumer reaction to 2‐D bar codes in conjunction with the release of an Xbox® game called Halo Wars. Displays bearing 2‐D bar codes were placed in selected Walmart stores where the game was sold. Consumers were instructed to take pictures of the bar codes with their cell phone cameras. Those who did were immediately directed to a special website where they could preorder the game and get free perks such as ringtones. Microsoft® found that 85% of the people who visited the site ended up downloading content onto their phones (Woyke, 2009).
The next step for merchants using the 2‐D bar codes to attract consumers to their sites is allowing them to make purchases.
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And now the QR code is becoming ubiquitous. These are small squares of numerous inset white and black squares, which mean nothing to the human eye, but when you let your smartphone scan them they reveal embedded information. QR stands for Quick Response and it is a barcode the Japanese automotive industry first developed. Now, they are on many products and advertisements that let a user with a smartphone, and the associated QR app, learn more.
Let the Buyer Beware
While consumers clearly are enthralled with the new interactive features being added to e‐commerce sites every day, they also should be aware of some potential pitfalls.
Just as legitimate merchants are using new technology to entice online customers, there are many unscrupulous characters developing schemes to defraud unsuspecting Internet shoppers. A tactic known as phishing (pronounced fishing) is among the most popular of these ploys. (Also see Chapter 1 for more on this scam.)
A phishing scheme typically starts with an email bearing the name of a legitimate e‐commerce provider or financial institution. The message tells the receiver to click a link leading to what also may appear to be a legitimate business website. The tip‐off that this is a phishing scheme comes when the consumer is asked to enter an account number or other personal information on this site. Legitimate businesses never ask for that type of information unless the consumer has initiated a transaction on their site. Phishers use this personal information to make unauthorized purchases with a person's credit card or, even worse, to steal their identity and open other accounts in their name.
The true trademark of a phishing email is that it contains a link to what is supposed to be the real e‐commerce site. However, when the user clicks on it, he or she is directed to a fake version of the real site. The actual e‐commerce site would have the user actually type in the URL address instead of clicking the link. So, if you do click one of these links (and the recommendation is that you never do), you will often see a non‐official URL. For example, here are phishing samples targeting PayPal users: http://www.consumerfraudreporting.org/phishing_paypal.php (http://www.consumerfraudreporting.org/phishing_paypal.php)
This is just a reminder that even in what is fast becoming the E‐Commerce Age, the old fashioned warning of caveat emptor—let the buyer beware—is still sound advice.
Links for More Information
For Quarterly E‐Commerce Information, visit: http://www.census.gov/retail/ecommerce/historic_releases.html (http://www.census.gov/retail/ecommerce/historic_releases.html)
What is phishing? http://www.onguardonline.gov/phishing (http://www.onguardonline.gov/phishing/)
What are 2‐D Barcodes? http://tag.microsoft.com/what‐is‐tag/2d‐barcodes.aspx (http://tag.microsoft.com/what‐is‐tag/2d‐barcodes.aspx)
Amazon.com
One of the greatest online selling success stories is a website called amazon.com. Founded by entrepreneur Jeff Bezos in 1994, it began as a way to buy books and music online, but soon expanded to include just about any product imaginable. With Amazon's online store, customers can "window shop" for more products than they could find even at the largest shopping malls. They can have the goods shipped directly to their house, rather than wasting money on gas or spending time trying to find a parking space. E‐commerce is fast and convenient, and it has made Jeff Bezos a wealthy man, even though his company struggled for many years at the outset to turn a profit. At first, people were skeptical about using their credit cards online, and few people had fast Internet accounts. However, with more secure credit authentication systems and other types of security, and more people getting broadband connections in their homes, Amazon and sites like it have experienced a tremendous surge in business (Bacon & Pugh, 2003, p. 20).
A Look Further: Visitors to Retail Websites
Consider the following statistics for popular retail websites from the first quarter of 2012. Amazon had the most number of unique Web visitors per month at 107 million. They were followed by Apple® (48 million), Wal‐Mart (39 million), Netflix (28 million) and Target (24 million) (see http://www.statista.com/statistics/172685/monthly‐unique‐visitors‐of‐us‐retail‐websites/ (http://www.statista.com/statistics/172685/monthly‐unique‐ visitors‐of‐us‐retail‐websites/) ). Do you think this will be how people will purchase goods, rather than driving to a store? Why or why not?
PayPal
One other online service that has eased the minds of consumers about online transactions is PayPal (www.paypal.com (https://www.paypal.com) ). This is a money transfer website founded in 1998 for what is known as C2C (consumer‐to‐consumer) transactions. It enables anyone with an email address to send money safely and securely to anyone else in the world who has an email address. These transactions might be as simple as paying a neighbor's kid to rake your leaves, or it might be something more substantial, such as collecting payment from the buyer when you sell your car. PayPal can just as easily be used for transferring money for services
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eBay™ bought PayPal after the latter's safe, online payment system contributed to eBay™'s success. In addition to keeping customers' financial information secure, what else is central to building a successful online business like eBay™?
AP Photo/Paul Sakuma
(raking leaves) or goods (a car). To use this service, simply open a PayPal account and then transfer money into it through a bank wire or a credit card transaction. Now, you are ready to give the money to anyone with a PayPal account (Friedman, 2007, p. 86).
PayPal has capitalized on the rise of mobile computing and even its company motto references it (see it here: https://www.paypal‐media.com/about (https://www.paypal‐media.com/about) ). With an app, you can link your PayPal to bank accounts, credit cards, or debit cards and then select how you want to pay for a transaction. There are alternatives to PayPal such as Stripe (https://stripe.com/ (https://stripe.com/) ).
eBay™
eBay™ had its beginnings in Pierre Omidyar's spare bedroom in a Silicon Valley townhouse. It was 1994 when he opened a site called AuctionWeb, and few people cared much about it. The idea was to auction goods online, just as one might with a real auctioneer and an audience bidding and one‐upping each other on price. It seemed like a strange idea, but Omidyar first tried it by putting his broken laser pointer online with an opening bid of $1. Over the next two weeks, he watched people actually fighting over the pointer, until the auction closed and the winning bidder paid $14.83. When he reminded the purchaser that the pointer was broken, the bidder on the item said that was okay because he was a collector of laser pointers. This was the day that Omidyar knew his idea would change the world (Cohen, 2003, p. 4). Four years later, eBay™ itself had a value higher than Sears, Kmart, and J.C. Penney combined. Omidyar's own net worth was $4 billion. In 2002, eBay™ saw how important PayPal was to its success and acquired the company. Today, PayPal has 113.2 million active accounts and can make transactions in 25 currencies in 190 markets around the world (https://www.paypal‐media.com/about (https://www.paypal‐media.com/about) ).
At ebay.com, millions of people have moved their yard and garage sales to the Internet, where they sell their goods to the highest bidder. eBay™ has taken the visibility that a garage sale provided, which was essentially anyone who might drive by your house, and expanded it to the world. eBay™ works for the casual seller of a few items as well as those who open their own electronic storefronts to sell their own brands of purses, crafts, baseball cards, or anything else that might be imagined. According to its website, eBay™ currently has 100 million users and is the largest online marketplace in the world.
In 2011, eBay™ was responsible for transactions involving $68 billion worth of goods. E‐commerce is fast becoming the primary way goods are bought and sold (http://www.ebayinc.com/who (http://www.ebayinc.com/who) ).
Questions to Consider
1. How can you make money online? 2. Are all online business opportunities safe? 3. What is e‐commerce? 4. What is the meaning of B2B and C2C? 5. Who founded Amazon.com and when? 6. Is Amazon.com a bricks and mortar store? 7. What is one of the most popular ways to transact money on the Internet? 8. What is eBay™? 9. What company did eBay™ acquire in 2002 and why?
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NASA maintains a presence in Second Life, and in this photo NASA is holding a press conference inside the virtual world. What might be some of the advantages and disadvantages of visually immersive virtual environments?
NASA/Science Faction/SuperStock
8.3 Virtual Communities When we think about society, which is the theme of this chapter, another word closely associated with it is community. Within the larger society, we also form smaller communities of people with whom we interact on a daily basis. These might be communities within our neighborhood, church, or school, or groups we join based on our hobbies and interests. Is it possible to duplicate these types of activities online? The answer is yes, and virtual communities are a fast‐growing segment of digital society. Virtual communities are formed when groups of people come together with a common interest in an online space. Such a community is virtual because the space is not real in the traditional sense, and interactions take place entirely online with people from all over the world.
Cyberspace
In 1984, science fiction writer William Gibson coined a new term—cyberspace. It is important to consider how he defined this term, because his words provide an amazingly prophetic vision of a future we are experiencing now. He said that cyberspace was a "consensual hallucination . . . a graphic representation of data . . . [involving] unthinkable complexity. Lines of light ranged in the nonspace of the mind, clusters and constellations of data. Like city lights, receding . . ." (Gibson, 2000, p. 51). What was he talking about? Perhaps if you saw the Matrix movies you might have some idea. But Gibson was envisioning a virtual community that humans could actually live within. Is this possible?
In 1993, Howard Rheingold wrote a book called The Virtual Community in which he discussed the possibility of people gathering together in a unique new way on the fledgling World Wide Web. It was the beginning of the era of people actually finding "life" on the Net (Rheingold, 1993). Why were people flocking to this new type of interaction? Because there was a real hunger for community, and as informal public spaces began to disappear, the virtual community would expand to fill the void.
LambdaMOO
One of the first virtual communities emerged at a place that we have seen several other times in this book—Xerox®. In 1990, Pavel Curtis, a computer scientist at Xerox® Corporation's Palo Alto Research Center, created LambdaMOO on his workstation. This was an experimental MUD (Multi‐User Dungeon), which meant that people could use the Telnet function of their computers to enter a text‐based world where they could interact in real time with other people. The MUD was an online textual game much like Dungeons & Dragons. Although this type of interaction does not appeal to everyone, another type of textual environment emerged called a MOO (MUD Object Oriented). It did not have the gaming element and was intended more for social interaction. Much more than a chat room, it was a virtual world in which you could walk around buildings, explore forests, and visit friends. Places like this were where some of the texting terms we use today, like LOL (laugh out loud) and AFK (away from keyboard), originated.
LambdaMOO is now a dying community. At its peak usage, more than 300 people were connected at one time, although this often caused the system to "lag" or slow down. Ironically, now that faster computers have eliminated the lag, only a dozen or so people participate at any one time.
Second Life
The vision of having a vibrant virtual community is now realized in Second Life. Have you ever asked yourself what you would do if you could live your life over? What type of person would you be? What career would you select? What would you look like if you could change your appearance? Would you be the same gender? If these questions appeal to you, then Second Life may be for you.
Unlike LambdaMOO, Second Life is a visually immersive community that uses all the power of the Internet to create a simulated world. No longer is text the way that items are defined. Instead, complex 3‐D renderings of a world created by the users enable you to walk through it and see and interact with other people. The avatars are much more complex, too. An avatar is a character or image that represents someone in a virtual community. You can design and clothe a character that looks just like your real self, or you can create a fantasy character for your avatar, such as a superhero, a race car driver, a robot, or an animal.
Launched in 2003 by Philip Rosedale (http://www.secondlife.com (http://www.secondlife.com) ), Second Life initially had just 1,000 users or players. By 2006, its population had reached one million. Real life also has its representations in Second Life. For example, many colleges and universities have Second Life locations. Just about any real landmark you might want to visit (such as the Sistine Chapel, the Statue of Liberty, or the Eiffel Tower) exists as a stunning replication in Second Life. Another reason Second Life is such a powerful virtual community is that it has its own economy. This is important because it enables people to have their own jobs. You could be a newspaper reporter, a politician, a seamstress, a priest, and so on. Your options are limited only by your own imagination. And what would an economy be without its own currency? Second Life has Linden Dollars (L$), and there is actually an exchange rate with real U.S. dollars (US$). For example, if you wanted 100,000 L$, it would cost you roughly 400 US$. You can make this payment to your Second Life avatar by credit card or PayPal. Or you can actually earn money in Second Life by working at your Second Life job. For example, if you are a good house builder or clothing designer, you can sell your goods to other characters and make a nice living for your virtual self (Rymaszewski, 2007). You can watch this video on Second Life to see some of the experiences possible:
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http://youtu.be/LraV05R2m50 (http://youtu.be/LraV05R2m50) .
Though Second Life is still a vibrant community, membership is declining.
MMORPG
For those who want to join a virtual community but are more interested in fantasy gaming than replicating or simulating real life, then a MMORPG (massive multiplayer online role‐playing game) might be for you. Some of the most popular games are World of Warcraft (http://www.battle.net (http://www.battle.net) ), RuneScape (http://www.runescape.com (http://www.runescape.com) ), League of Legends (http://www.leagueoflegends.com (http://www.leagueoflegends.com) ), MineCraft (http://www.minecraft.net (http://www.minecraft.net) ), and EverQuest (http://www.everquest.com (http://www.everquest.com) ). As with Second Life, you get an avatar and a profession, but these are fantasy worlds, so you can become a magician, a warrior, or a thief. By completing quests, killing monsters, and exploring dungeons, you gain experience points, increase your abilities and attributes, and earn gold. This is yet another example of a virtual community because you are playing with other real humans. You can team up to quest together for just one night, or you can align with a Guild to share more extensive quests for longer periods.
Many of these games are browser based, meaning that you do not have to purchase software from a store to begin playing. Some also have mobile apps to continue games while on your tablet or smartphone.
Also there are increasing numbers of MMORPGs for kids. One example is Toon Town (http://www.toontown.com (http://www.toontown.com) ), the Disney MMORPG for kids with a variety of parental controls to prevent inappropriate chatting. Another is WebKinz, which ties in real‐life products purchased at a store (stuffed animals) with an online community. With each animal purchased, a child can enter information into webkinz.com (http://www.webkinz.com (http://www.webkinz.com) ) and see that animal as an avatar in the virtual world.
A Look Further: Create Your Own Avatar
If you want to create a custom avatar just for fun that is not linked to any other application, you can build one at:
http://doppleme.com/ (http://doppleme.com/)
A Virtual or Real Community?
How far can you take this? In March 2003, Julian Dibbell, the author of Play Money, announced to his friends and family that he was going to start his own business selling "make‐believe commodities." His products did not exist in the real world. They were simply ones and zeros that when strung together became a virtual item in Second Life, and they had enough value that other people would pay real money for them. He, and others, have had real (not virtual) financial success. He called this "half‐illusory economy" the most improbable industry earning a half‐billion U.S. dollars a year on earth (Dibbell, 2006, p. 2). So, is this a virtual or a real community? Perhaps in the future there will be no difference. In April 2012, Forbes Magazine announced the first virtual currency exchange opened, giving people "the opportunity to cash out or monetize their virtual world activities" (Matonis, 2012).
This has expanded so dramatically today that it is difficult to estimate the total amount of virtual items owned. One example of how large this has become is the company called Zynga, which went public with a $10 billion market value. Most of its revenue comes from selling virtual products, like strawberries and other produce, in its popular game Farmville (Mir, 2012).
Questions to Consider
1. What is a virtual community? 2. Why interact in a virtual community when you live in a real one? 3. When was the term cyberspace coined and by whom? 4. What is LambdaMOO, and why was it important? 5. What can you do at Second Life? 6. What is an avatar? 7. What is a MMORPG?
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In general, educators and institutions understand that providing online learning opportunities is crucial to remaining competitive. Here, a video is produced for use in online learning at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Melanie Stetson Freeman/The Christian Science Monitor
8.4 Online Education Clearly, online education is a topic you know something about already. But education is fast becoming one of the most significant areas of the digital society. It is important to take a step back to look at more general issues of online education and its role in society. What is remarkable is how quickly these schools have become a viable and important educational alternative. In the 1990s, few universities had online classes. Today, online education is one of the most exciting and revolutionary aspects of our educational system.
The Origins of Computer‐Assisted Learning
Online education, or distance learning, is defined as the use of computer technology to link students and teachers together who do not share the same geographic location. In 1970, Murray Turoff developed the first computer conferencing system, and some of these ideas eventually became a key component of the online classroom. In the 1980s, computer learning typically meant a multimedia presentation on a medium such as CD‐ROM. It was not until the development of the World Wide Web in the 1990s that a more interactive type of learning environment was created.
Synchronous and Asynchronous Learning
Two types of learning models evolved. In synchronous learning, all the students meet at the same time but in different locations. They learn by engaging with other students and the professor at the same time. With asynchronous learning, there are no set times for everyone to gather together. There are weekly assignments and discussion board postings, but students do not have to be logged on at any specific time of the day. The availability of asynchronous learning is important when there is a worldwide student body. For example, when it is noon in New York, it is midnight in Jakarta, Indonesia. This makes attending a class at 2 p.m. impossible for someone living half a world away.
The Growth of Online Education
Online education is growing dramatically each year not only in higher education, but also at the K‐12 level. U.S. News & World Report is considered by many one of the most thorough rankers of higher education, including both online and on‐ground institutions. It published an article on why six students decided on online over on‐ ground education. Despite their different backgrounds and educational pursuits, the majority of these students chose online classes because of the flexibility it offers (McMullen, 2012).
Most educators see online learning as essential for the long‐term success of their schools. In other words, if a university is not offering some online classes, it will have a hard time competing in the future. Another trend is the growth of graduate degrees. Recent statistics from the Sloan Consortium (2011) indicate that 30 percent (roughly 6 million) of all students take at least one course online. The study coauthor Elaine Allen said that, "The rate of growth in online enrollments is ten times that of the rate in all higher education." She continued by saying, "While growth rates have declined somewhat from previous years, we see no evidence that a dramatic slowdown in online enrollments is on the horizon" (Allen et al., 2011).
Course Management Systems
Course management systems are software programs that define the online classroom environment. In 2004 and 2005, Forbes Magazine listed eCollege as one of the 25 fastest‐ growing technology companies. It was also the first online learning company that targeted higher education (colleges and universities) to be publicly traded on the stock market. There are course management systems other than eCollege, such as Educator, BlackBoard, and even Outlook® Express. With a growing demand for these systems among educational institutions, the developers will continue to put pressure on each other to improve their products. This benefits the student, because it ensures that course management software will continue to evolve and enhance the online learning experience.
Two growing open‐source course management systems (CMS) are Moodle and Sakai. Moodle (http://moodle.org/ (http://moodle.org/) ) can be used by a single professor or an entire university with hundreds of thousands of students. With forums, databases, and wikis, it requires installation on a Web server and some knowledge of how to configure it to receive students. Sakai is another open‐source example (http://www.sakaiproject.org/ (http://www.sakaiproject.org/) ). Over 350 educational organizations now use Sakai with features including forums, emails, chat, and Twitter integration.
Another key trend is MOOCs (massive open online courses). These are single courses offered for free by major universities. One example is Coursera (http://www.coursera.org/ (http://www.coursera.org/) ), a for‐profit start‐up founded by Stanford University students in 2011 that quickly registered 680,000 students in 43 courses. In 2012, the New York Times reported that Coursera is expanding its partners to include California Institute of Technology; Duke University; the Georgia Institute of Technology; Johns Hopkins University; Rice University; the University of California, San Francisco; the University of Illinois, Urbana‐Champaign; the University of Washington; and the University of Virginia. Richard A. DeMillo, the director of the Center for 21st Century Universities at Georgia Tech said, "This is a tsunami. . .It's all so new that everyone's feeling their way around, but the potential upside for this experiment is so big that it's hard for me to imagine any large
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research university that wouldn't want to be involved" (Lewin, 2012).
In July 2012, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University released their own joint plans to form edX (https://www.edx.org/ (https://www.edx.org/) ), along with 120 college and university partners. Unlike Coursera, edX is a not‐for‐profit start‐up (Young, 2012).
Tips for Online Education Success
There are a number of skills required for success in an online classroom. Many of these are the same study habits required to do well in an onground classroom. As one professor stated, "It's similar to a brick‐and‐mortar class, but you have so much flexibility that you really need to plan for how and when you're going to do it" (Sheehy, 2012).
However, there are some important differences and U.S. News & World Report offered these four tips.
1. Familiarize yourself with the course and important due dates. The first thing all students should do is go through the syllabus and all other introductory materials and literally map out a plan with your schedule for how you will navigate through it. This is something the student needs to do him or herself because no one knows their schedule like they do.
2. Make sure your hardware and software is up to date with university requirements. 3. Take time to get to know your professor and other students, and strive to make a good impression. 4. Learn about the educational resources at your online university. Make sure you understand how to research in the library and the difference between
quality scholarship and an online blog.
In addition to these, time management, balancing personal obligations, finding a good study environment, not underestimating one's workload, and personal discipline are all critical skills.
Finally, also from U.S. News & World Report, here are the 8 main mistakes that online students often make and how to avoid them (Clark, 2010):
1. Investigate the school and accreditation. 2. Budget at least 10 hours of study time per week. 3. Know your learning style. If you need face‐to‐face interaction, then online education is not for you. 4. Ensure that you have the technology to support your school's requirements. For example, if you do not have access to a computer, then you should not
consider online education. 5. Investigate your teacher. Ratemyprofessor.com is one way, though often only the best and the worst students post comments there. Better ways to do
this are to look to see what they have published, read their bio, and ask friends. 6. Do not jump into a full plate of difficult courses for your first online experience. Start slow, learn the ropes, and then build on those successes. 7. Understand plagiarism. 8. Be willing to work hard and cooperate with your online classmates.
This final tip is essential because online education is not a solitary endeavor. It requires high levels of interaction, and this requires special attention to etiquette.
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Explore the interaction to learn more about how you can set yourself up for success in the online educational environment.
Online Etiquette
Contrary to the idea of water cooler gossip, there are important net etiquette rules for making sure your online interactions are polite and professional.
There are some important guides to follow when engaging in online learning. They are part of a set of rules called net etiquette or sometimes netiquette. In the real world, etiquette includes unwritten rules of good behavior such as holding the door open for the person entering a building behind you, not shouting in public or being rude, and always showing respect for your colleagues. Online, similar rules are important in order to maintain a positive learning environment. Since you will be expressing your ideas with your words, you must be careful that your intent is communicated. For example, if you make a joke in a real classroom, you might be laughing and smiling as you say the words, thereby letting the students and professor know that it was a good‐natured comment. However, the same words, without the nonverbal cues associated with them, might come across in a far different way online. You are always advised to read everything you write before you post. If you are making a joke, use caution. It never hurts to include a smiley :) emoticon if you are not sure people will understand that you are joking. Be careful not to overuse emoticons, however. Sometimes you will find that it is better to rephrase your post entirely.
Some more clear‐cut examples of dos and don'ts of online etiquette include the following.
1. Always avoid offensive language, and be sure to reread everything you write so it cannot be interpreted as offensive in any way. 2. Never share personal material about any other classmate in a post. 3. If you want to upload attachments, try to keep them small (under 1 MB). 4. Never distribute pornographic or slanderous material. 5. Opinions are important to share, but do not make posts a stage from which to broadcast your personal views of life. 6. The goal for each student is to learn the classroom material, not to try to make everyone see life the same way you do. 7. Your experiences can enhance this learning for others, but the online classroom is not only about your experiences. 8. Finally, if you have a question about something you want to write or about what another student wrote, email your professor privately. Do not engage in
flaming, which is a term that describes an increasingly intense and vicious debate. If it appears that a discussion is headed in this direction, simply stop.
These rules are easy to learn, and you will find that they quickly become second nature. You will soon be having fun with your online interactions and learning a great deal at the same time. The rules simply make your online learning experience as positive as possible.
This concludes our tour of the digital society. There are certainly other examples of the ways in which computers and society are interacting, but these examples— education, community, economy, privacy, piracy, and pornography—go a long way toward sketching the general outlines of digital society today.
Questions to Consider
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1. What is the value of a virtual classroom? 2. What is distance learning? What is another term for it? 3. What is the difference between synchronous and asynchronous learning? 4. What are some examples of online course management systems? 5. What is flaming? 6. What is netiquette? 7. What are some behaviors that would violate online etiquette?
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Facebook has been the subject of protests and debates about what it does with its users' personal data and how well it protects users' privacy. Do you feel you have enough privacy on social media sites?
Paul Sakuma/Associated Press
8.5 Computing, Information, and the Law Just as we need to be aware of special laws that apply when we drive a car (speed limits, licenses, school zones, no drinking and driving, minimum age limits, and seatbelt use) there are also legal issues involved in using computers. Did you know that some one was arrested for a Facebook poke? If you are not a Facebook user, a poke is simply a virtual way to let someone know you are thinking of them, and no physical poking actually takes place. Millions of these pokes happen every day. However, the person who was arrested for her poke had a restraining order against her. Law enforcement considered the poke to be a violation of the restraining order, and an arrest was made. Beyond the specifics of this case, it raises a larger point about the law and the world of computing. The intersection of computers, information, and the law is a vast topic that has been the subject of many books. In this section, you will learn more about this dynamic, ever‐changing, and important field, and you will read about some relevant examples of recent legal questions. These issues have a direct relationship not only to your online experience but also to your personal life away from computing. Your own privacy and the power of computers, the legality of people collecting data about you, and the value of this information on the open market are issues all of us should be aware of, regardless of whether or not we are studying digital literacy.
Legal Battles and Computers
Litigation, or the process of bringing legal proceedings against a person or organization, has paralleled the evolution of computing and mirrored its growth. While we hear about many frivolous lawsuits today, some important and necessary legal battles have been fought. For example, before 1976, computer programmers had few rights because the programs they wrote were not considered eligible for copyright protection. Over time, the law has been shaped to enable this type of protection. The programmer's code is now considered intellectual property, and it is subject to rights and laws that protect its creators and owners. Just as you would not directly copy someone else's words when writing a paper for school without citing the source (because this is plagiarism), computer code also cannot be used without the owner's consent (Graham, 1999).
But this is just a small snapshot of the intersection between the law and computers. Take a look at your computer screen and consider this fact: just about every feature you see has had a lawsuit attached to it at one time or another. Lawrence Graham, in his book Legal Battles That Shaped the Computer Industry, provided a list of these features. He said that each of them (and many more) had a major lawsuit, fought between computer hardware and software companies, and that the resulting legal rulings have shaped the way that we use computers today. A partial list of these include menu arrangements, fonts, icons, trademarks, keystrokes, back‐up copies, operating systems, and even the "look and feel" of the screen itself (Graham, 1999). One thing is clear: lawyers have been as busy as programmers during the computer age.
Privacy
Many of the current legal concerns revolve around the issue of privacy. In a book on invasions of privacy in the computer world, Dan Tynan (2005) listed more than 150 privacy concerns. It would be impossible to discuss all of them here, but some of these include keeping medical data private, using public Internet terminals to store information, and online shopping and the safety of sharing your credit card number with unknown vendors, cyber stalkers, and identity thieves. As Scott McNealy, the CEO of Sun Microsystems, infamously said in 1999, "You have zero privacy anyway. Get over it" (Tynan, 2005, p. 1). Of course, this is not something we can or should "get over," but we do need to be aware of the threats. Sometimes privacy invasions happen as simple mistakes. For example, Facebook mistakenly sent emails to the wrong addresses. Imagine sending a private email to your friend complaining about your boss, and having this email appear in the inbox of someone who might know your employer personally, or even the boss herself.
Another privacy issue occurred with Google's new social networking site called Buzz. When it first went live in 2010, everyone who had Google Gmail™ accounts was automatically signed up. Buzz shared the user's email addresses with everyone else on the network, without asking permission. The Electronic Privacy Information Center immediately issued a complaint with the Federal Trade Commission stating that Google's Buzz was in violation of the Federal Consumer Protection Law (Choney, 2010). Google has avoided this mistake with its introduction of Google+™ social networking. Still, this example highlights the fact that none of us can be confident that we are aware of all the privacy issues that exist. With new social media and ways to use computers and with link
information being developed every day, there is a corresponding privacy threat that emerges with all of them. The best defense is knowledge and vigilance.
Contemporary Issues
As the above examples demonstrate, the fact that incredible numbers of legal battles have been waged in the past does not mean the legal landscape is now settled. Almost every day, a new question arises over the use of computers and information and their impact on individual rights. One example occurred in February 2010. In a landmark ruling in Italy, Judge Oscar Magi convicted three Google executives on criminal charges. The crime? Google had failed to remove a video that someone had posted that infringed on Italian privacy laws. The video was of a boy who had Down syndrome, and the father said that it violated the family's privacy. Google actually did remove the video two hours after the complaint was lodged. The Google executives included the company's chief financial officer, chief legal officer, and the lawyer
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for Google who specializes in global privacy. The problem is that with millions of videos being uploaded to Google's YouTube™ site, it would be impossible for the company to be responsible for all the content that users upload. This case not only highlights the ongoing legal issues that surround computing, but also the global nature of many of these issues.
Privacy still remains a central area of legal concerns. Consider the following example. When you type an email in Google's Gmail™ or Yahoo!® mail, advertisements related to your content will appear. If you type that you love French fries, then you might see an advertisement for McDonald's. Several California residents are taking Google and Yahoo!® to court for doing this. Their claim is that their emails are being intercepted without their knowledge, consent, or permission (Ellin, 2012). They claim that this tactic by Google and Yahoo!® is in violation of the California Invasion of Privacy Act (CIPA), which prohibits wiretapping phones or eavesdropping on emails. Stay tuned to see how this legal battle plays out and how it might affect your email system.
Questions to Consider
1. Is everything legal on the Internet? 2. What is an early example of a legal battle that programmers waged? 3. What are some visible elements of computing that have had lawsuits attached to them? 4. What are some of the main privacy concerns that center on the use of computers? 5. What was the legal issue involved in the release of Buzz? 6. Is the right to free speech online threatened today?
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Julian Abram Wainwright/Bloomberg via Getty Images
8.6 Globalization and a Flattened World The word globalization is a fairly recent term dating back only to the 1960s, but it was not until the 1990s that it became the buzzword of the decade. The central meaning of globalization is that all social life on the planet, from Andorra to Zimbabwe and every country in between, is interdependent (Steger, 2010). No longer is there an "us and them," or "over here and over there." We are all living in the same world. But why should you have to be concerned about globalization in a class on digital literacy? It sounds more like something that you would read about in a textbook on international business. The reality is that at the heart of globalization has been a technology that makes it all possible. You probably guessed it—the computer. But did you realize that in helping to bring about globalization, the computer also flattened the world?
Is the World Flat?
It may come as a surprise to you to hear that the world is flat. Before you begin hunting down your grade school teachers and asking why they taught you that the world was round, you should know that the idea that the world is flat is credited to a journalist rather than a geographer. Thomas Friedman is the journalist, and in his best‐selling book, The World Is Flat, he used this metaphor to explain the new global economy and illustrate how closely connected we all are. Of course, he acknowledges that the world is in reality still round. But he says that our computer technology has "flattened" it, meaning that people from all over the world can interact with each other and "plug, play, compete, connect, and collaborate" (Friedman, 2007, p. x). No longer are geographical boundaries or distance factors that prevent communication.
Browsing the World
The first important flattener involves connectivity. The only way people in all parts of the world can compete and collaborate with each other is if they can connect and communicate with relative ease. Friedman says the key moment was the convergence of the Internet, the World Wide Web, and the browser. While university students had created several UNIX browsers in the early 1990s, it was the release of Netscape Navigator® in 1994 that made this convergence available to a much larger audience. While it is true that people were connecting to the Internet at very slow speeds by today's standards, the widespread availability of Netscape Navigator® set in motion a revolutionary trend in connectivity. We see it today in our online courses. It does not matter where all the students in your virtual classroom are located. Your classmates may be scattered on every continent of the world, but each of you has the same opportunity to earn an education as a person actually standing on a university campus itself. This is the power of globalization, and computers are central to making this possible.
Leveling the Global Playing Field
We typically do not think much about the process of uploading something to the Internet. Uploading happens when we send an image to Facebook, attach a Word document to an email, or post a school paper to the electronic classroom. These are all examples of uploading. The more time you spend online, especially in a Web 2.0 world, the more you will be uploading information. According to Friedman, this is an essential force involved in globalization. Again, it levels the worldwide playing field because a programmer in India has the same opportunity to upload ideas about a software project as an employee living in Silicon Valley. If that person in India could not easily upload these documents and images, he would be isolated and cut off from the world. Closely associated with this flattener is the ability to download. This is equally important to globalization, because without it, the flow of information would go just one way. That same employee in India also has an opportunity to download information to his own computer—company manuals, software updates, books, and articles—so that access to information is equalized.
Linking through Outsourcing
If you are old enough to have been aware of computers during the turn of the millennium between 1999 and 2000, you may remember something called Y2K (which is short for Year 2000). There was a global fear that at the stroke of midnight, computers all over the world would suddenly not know how to tell time and that everything from flights to bank accounts would crash. Why is Y2K important to globalization? According to Friedman, it was essential, because in preparing for the predicted Y2K disaster, the United States and India "started dating." He suggested that Y2K should actually be a "national holiday in India" (Friedman, 2007, p. 136). In order to make sure the doomsday Y2K scenario did not occur, American executives hired massive numbers of inexpensive programmers from India to go through the old code with a fine‐tooth comb and remove all dating errors. India's skilled labor force was perfect for this task. In the process of our working with India, the idea of outsourcing began to grow.
Outsourcing is the process by which jobs in one country (the United States, for example) are sent to another (India) that has cheaper labor. India is vital to the U.S. and world economy today because of a relationship that started with Y2K. This collaboration has fueled globalization because American companies saw how easy it was, using new computer technologies, to outsource work to other parts of the world. Today, the outsourcing of American jobs includes not just programming but also customer service and many other white‐collar professional positions. Although many corporations find outsourcing to be a profitable and efficient business model, others argue that it is ultimately weakening the United States by hurting middle‐class men and women whose jobs have been outsourced (Hira & Hira, 2005).
In 2011, the United States outsourced over 2.5 million jobs. Over 50 percent were in manufacturing, while only 12 percent were in call centers. The reasons Chief Financial Officers most often give for doing this is to reduce costs, relieve internal resources,
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Many call center jobs are outsourced to countries like the Philippines, where educated labor is cheaper than in the United States. How do you think outsourcing affects the U.S. economy?
expand IT services, and reduce the time to put products in the market. India and Indonesia are considered the top countries to outsource to (http://www.statisticbrain.com/outsourcing‐statistics‐by‐country/ (http://www.statisticbrain.com/outsourcing‐statistics‐by‐country/) ).
India Next Door
In this chapter, we have looked at the digital society from a variety of perspectives, including privacy, e‐commerce, virtual communities, education, legal issues, and globalization. In conclusion, I would like to offer a personal example that ties all of these issues together. Late one night, I was working at my computer when my virus protection crashed. This is a serious and urgent problem because it left my computer vulnerable to hackers who might break the law, infringe on my privacy, and steal my information.
A friend of mine, who happens to be a programmer, lives a few doors down from me. He is the person I typically call when I have a question, but it was late, and I did not want to wake him up. So, I went online to the support site for my virus protection, found the technical support number, and called it. In a matter of minutes, I was connected with a person who could help. He actually worked in India, and to fix the problem, he used a software connection program to take control of my computer, delete some corrupted files, and reinstall the software. This is significant, because while I watched someone from India move my mouse pointer around the screen, I knew beyond a shadow of a doubt that we were truly living in a digital society. It was easier and more convenient for me to get assistance from a stranger in India than it was to call my friend who lived in my own neighborhood. The digital society has indeed created a flat world.
What are the effects of globalization on the United States? Ultimately, the final outcome is unknown. There are detractors who argue that it hurts American interests because of the loss of middle‐class jobs to outsourcing, the reduction of services that small American business can offer, and the shift of wealth to other countries. However, others argue the opposite—that globalization strengthens the United States by opening up new markets for American products. For example, China has more than a billion people, and a 2005 survey overwhelmingly concluded that the Chinese people want more American‐made products, such as consumer electronics and high‐quality personal toiletries ("China Loves U.S. Stuff," 2005). The United States exports to China are growing and the U.S.‐China Business Council stated that "Between 2000 and 2011, total US exports to China rose 542 percent, from $16.2 billion to $103.9 billion" (http://www.uschina.org/cmi/total‐yearly‐us‐state‐exports‐ china‐pass‐100‐billion‐first‐time‐april‐4‐2012 (http://www.uschina.org/cmi/total‐yearly‐us‐state‐exports‐china‐pass‐100‐billion‐first‐time‐april‐4‐2012) ).
The growing Chinese middle class also hungers for clothing items with logos worn by American sports stars. So, the final scorecard on globalization has yet to be tallied, but one thing is certain—the forces of globalization will not be stopped, and those who will succeed are the ones that understand them best.
Questions to Consider
1. Is the world flat? 2. What is globalization? 3. Why is globalization important to computer literacy? 4. What is the significance of uploading and downloading to a global society? 5. What is Y2K, and how are its effects still being felt?
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Summary In this chapter, our goal was to focus on the digital society. Just like the society in which we interact with others in our real life, the digital society faces issues involving privacy, protection, and legal dilemmas. We explored examples of some of these issues in the electronic world. As we all know, one of the most important activities we perform in the real world is making money, and there are a variety of ways to do this in the digital society. We examined one popular way to generate e‐commerce: selling items on eBay™. The other main activity through which we engage in our society is socializing in communities. The digital society is similar, with several types of virtual communities existing to satisfy everyone from the gamer to the person who wants to experiment with a "second life." Our final topic was something with which you should be familiar already—online education. Considering all of these aspects together provides a very good picture of digital society. One of its most important features is that it is global. Virtual communities are not confined to your local street or town. The tools provided by computers have created a global digital society that has flattened the world.
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Key Ideas
The computer is neither good nor evil. In itself, it has no morals, positive or negative, because it is simply a machine. Not all Internet commerce is fraudulent. You can make money in legitimate online transactions. But, as in all areas of life, especially where money is concerned, you have to be careful and know what you are doing. Virtual communities are formed when groups of people come together with a common interest in an online space. Such a community is virtual because the space is not real in the traditional sense, and interactions take place entirely online with people from all over the world. In the 1990s, few universities had online classes. Today, online education is one of the most exciting and revolutionary aspects of our educational system. The intersection of computers, information, and the law is a vast topic. These issues have a direct relationship not only to your online experience but also to your personal life away from computing. At the heart of globalization is the computer—the technology that makes it all possible. In helping to bring about globalization, the computer has also "flattened" the world.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. As stated at the beginning of the chapter, the computer has no morals, positive or negative, because it is a machine. In your opinion, is the computer used for more positive or negative activities?
2. Have you ever purchased anything online? If so, what types of merchandise do you buy? Other than a physical presence, is there anything different between virtual and real goods bought online?
3. What are the benefits that a virtual community has over a real one? What are the limitations of virtual communities in comparison with real ones? 4. Which of the tips for online success do you find most important? Have you made any of the 8 main mistakes that online students often commit? 5. Why do you think that litigation, or the process of bringing legal proceedings against a person or organization, has paralleled the evolution of computing
and mirrored its growth? 6. Is the world "flat"? If yes, what are some reasons that make it so? If not, then how would you argue that Thomas Friedman is incorrect in his best‐selling
book, The World Is Flat?
Key Terms
Click on each key term to see the definition.
asynchronous learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
An online course method of delivery, with no set times for everyone to gather together.
avatar (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
A character or image that represents someone in a virtual community.
backing up files (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Copying files to an external hard drive or offsite location to protect your data.
bricks and mortar (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Universities or stores that have a physical presence and real buildings.
business‐to‐business (B2B) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Transactions between businesses, such as bills paid online, money transferred, and goods shipped and received.
computer virus (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
A program that replicates itself (or makes unauthorized copies without human intervention).
consumer‐to‐consumer (C2C) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Transactions from one consumer to another; examples include PayPal and other ways of sending money from one person to another through the Internet.
cyber crimes (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
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https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUINF103.13.2?sections=ch08,ch08introduction,sec8.1,sec8.2,sec8.3,sec8.4,sec8.5,sec8.6,ch08summary,ch08learning,ch09... 24/44
Crimes associated with computers connected to the Internet.
cybersex (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Virtual sex using text functions to chat between two real people.
cyberspace (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
The virtual world online, where people, gather, meet, communicate, and share information.
distance learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
(See online education).
downloading (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
The process of bringing information that exists somewhere on the Internet onto your home computer.
e‐commerce (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Electronic commerce, or making money online.
encryption (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
A secret code for your data that only your computer has the key to unscramble.
flaming (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
An increasingly intense and vicious debate online.
globalization (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Interdependence of all social life on the planet, from Andorra to Zimbabwe, and every country in between.
intellectual property (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
The creativity behind everything from songs to books and even computer programs.
malware (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
(See spyware).
MMORPG (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Massive multiplayer online role‐playing game.
MOO (MUD Object Oriented) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
A textual virtual community typically accessed with Telnet.
MUD (Multi‐User Dungeon) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
A textual virtual community, typically accessed with Telnet, that often had a role playing component.
net etiquette (netiquette) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Rules of conduct for interacting with people online.
online education
10/12/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUINF103.13.2?sections=ch08,ch08introduction,sec8.1,sec8.2,sec8.3,sec8.4,sec8.5,sec8.6,ch08summary,ch08learning,ch09... 25/44
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
The use of computer technology to link students and teachers together who do not share the same geographic location.
outsourcing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
The process by which jobs in one country (the United States, for example) are sent to another (India) that has cheaper labor.
peer‐to‐peer (P2P) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
File sharing that enables millions of people to download copyrighted material for free on their computers.
poke (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
On Facebook, a virtual way to let someone know you are thinking of them.
security token (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
A small device, often found in large organizations, that updates your password every 30 seconds, and can be clipped on your keychain.
spyware (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
A secret program that gathers information about you in the background of your computer and then shares it with another person.
synchronous learning (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Online classroom in which all the students meet at the same time, although they are in different locations.
uploading (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Sending information from your computer to the World Wide Web.
virtual communities (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Groups of people who come together with a common interest in an online space, and interactions take place entirely online with people from all over the world.
Y2K (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
The year 2000.
Web Resources
To learn more about cloud computing, visit: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ae_DKNwK_ms (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ae_DKNwK_ms)
The Computer Crime Manual from the Office of Legal Education is available at: http://www.justice.gov/criminal/cybercrime/docs/ccmanual.pdf (http://www.justice.gov/criminal/cybercrime/docs/ccmanual.pdf)
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Chapter 9
Emerging Computer Technologies
AP Photo/Jae C. Hong
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to complete the following:
List the impact of mobile phones, smart cards, GPS, and augmented reality. Summarize the key developments of e‐readers, tablets, and smartphones. Describe the significance of artificial intelligence. Explain the concept of cloud computing.
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Introduction The final stop in our journey toward computer literacy is the emerging computer technologies of the present and what might be on the horizon in the future. Instead of trying to imagine what computers will be like in 50 years, we are going to look at the near‐term future (with the exception of the cloud) and the computer technologies emerging right now. We can get a glimpse of this future by studying some of the trends that are occurring before our eyes. In this chapter, we will explore topics such as mobile computing, artificial intelligence, and something called cloud computing.
Even looking at the near‐term future is a difficult task. Bill Gates, the founder of Microsoft®, did this for the computer industry in 1995 when he published The Road Ahead. In this book, he pointed out famous historical examples of experts who clearly got the future wrong. There was the professor in 1878 who thought that electric lighting was a gimmick. Then there was the U.S. Patent Commissioner who in 1899 was convinced that every significant invention had already been invented (Gates, 1996). In the middle of the 20th century, many people believed that every family in the 21st century would have a helicopter or at least a personal jet pack. We will try to do a better job with our predictions in this chapter. Let's take a look at the exciting road we are on now, as well as the road ahead.
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9.1 Mobile Phones Years ago, if you were away from your phone or office you had to look for a pay phone. For a dime, you could make a telephone call that lasted a few minutes. Pay phones were ubiquitous, with several often lined up in a row at heavily populated public places. Sometimes, there was an actual phone booth with a folding glass door that enabled people to make phone calls in relative privacy. The comic book hero Superman made these famous as the place he transformed from Clark Kent to the superhero. But today, the pay phone and the phone booth are little more than a memory. Now, calling from the road is as easy as reaching into your pocket.
Smartphones
One of the most significant new computing devices in the last few decades is the smartphone. During the 1990s, three major technological developments gained popularity. First, were cell phones and their service plans, which became much less expensive. By the end of the decade, almost everyone had one. Second, a new type of electronic device emerged at the same time called the PDA or Personal Digital Assistant. These small, handheld computers, initially sold by Palm and Visor, offered calendars, datebooks, organizational software, and gaming applications. Third, laptops were increasingly able to surf the Internet, provided their owners could locate a Wi‐Fi hotspot. As email became more essential, laptops were often carried just to check email. By the end of the 1990s, businessmen and women were often lugging around all three devices to remain as productive as possible. Could all three merge into one?
This dream was realized in 2004, when the BlackBerry® smartphone was introduced for AT&T and T‐Mobile cell service. A smartphone combined the features of a PDA with a cell phone and the ability to check email. It also served as a flash drive, media player for music and video, and picture viewer. And it added a QWERTY keyboard, with keys that were smaller but laid out in the same configuration as a standard computer keyboard. Soon, other competitors emerged and BlackBerry® quickly lost market share, most notably to the Apple® iPhone®, of which 6 million were sold in 2007, its first year on the market (http://www.statista.com/statistics/12743/worldwide‐AppleiPhone‐sales‐since‐3rd‐quarter‐2007/ (http://www.statista.com/statistics/12743/worldwide‐AppleiPhone‐sales‐ since‐3rd‐quarter‐2007/) ).
iPhone®
Apple®'s eagerly awaited iPhone® capitalized on the huge following it had established with its iPod® handheld music and video players and Macintosh® computers. Duplicating the same elegance and user‐friendliness with its iPhone®, Apple® began to dominate the market, as its iPhone® App Store℠ enabled users to download applications that fit their own unique needs. TIME™ Magazine named it as the invention of the year in 2007. In 2009, the iPhone® 3.0 included a camera, 3G connection speeds, and voice control. At the same time, Apple® also improved the iPhone®'s GPS functionality. In 2012, the iPhone® 4S came in 16‐ to 64‐GB memory options, with prices between $199 and $399. At 4.5 in. tall, and 2.3 in. wide, it weighed just 4.9 ounces and was .37 in. in depth. With Wi‐Fi, Bluetooth™ wireless, and 4G cellular connection speeds, it transferred data quickly. It also introduced human‐like interface with Siri®, which attempted to answer voice commands by the user (http://www.apple.com/iphone/ (http://www.apple.com/iphone/) ).
A Closer Look: The iPhone®
Do you have an iPhone®? What do you like and dislike about it compared to other smartphones?
To see how Siri® works, visit this site: http://www.apple.com/ios/s (http://www.apple.com/ios/s)
In 2013, the iPhone® 5 is the latest in the fast‐evolving line of Apple® phones. You can learn about it here: http://www.apple.com/iphone/ (http://www.apple.com/iphone/)
Android™
While the iPhone® was making headlines, the executives at Google began planning their own revolutionary announcement. In 2005, Google purchased the developer of a mobile operating system called Android™. In 2007, it began releasing the Android™ code to developers, and with phones manufactured by HTC and with Verizon as its carrier, Google capitalized on its huge Web‐based following as a search engine. By 2010, it earned the distinction of having the world's most used smartphone platform (Tecca, 2012). Today, it is the operating system for millions of phones (popular ones include HTC and Samsung Galaxy® series), tablets, and related computing devices (http://www.android.com/about/ (http://www.android.com/about/) ).
Windows®
Microsoft® also is a major player in the smartphone competition. With a Windows® operating system, a variety of manufacturers offer Windows® smartphones, including: Samsung Focus 2, Nokia Lumia 900, HTC Titan II, and LG Quantum.
It boasts a simplified design with the use of Live Tiles (this is similar to the Windows® 8 operating system for tablet and desktop computers). Live Tiles allows the user to personalize the start screen by placing any applications, photos, games, songs, websites, or documents they want. These items will update automatically in real time, allowing the user to get the latest information on the items they are following (http://www.windowsphone.com/en‐us/features (http://www.windowsphone.com/en‐ us/features) ).
Smart Cards
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Here, Google cofounder Sergey Brin wears Google Glass™ glasses. Would you use Google Glass™ glasses? Why or why not?
AP Photo/Jeff Chiu
Phones are not the only "smart" devices out there. There is also an emerging technology called the smart card, which looks like a credit card, but has an embedded processor that replaced the magnetic strip used for identification purposes in traditional credit cards. The processor also has a memory so that data about the owner can be stored. A smart card can be swiped in a smart card reader in much the same way as a credit card, but it can also communicate through a radio frequency interface. Smart cards are currently more popular in Europe than the United States; for example, every German citizen carries a smart card containing information for medical purposes. The smart card can do many things that a credit card cannot. The Smart Card Alliance (http://www.smartcardalliance.org/ (http://www.smartcardalliance.org/) ) is a nonprofit group working to promote the use of this technology in areas such as electronic monitoring, finance, government, health care, identity, telecommunications, and transportation.
The smart card is very different from the magnetic stripe card, which is in wide usage today. These do not have an embedded computer processor, but they are "smart" because they contain data encoded with iron particles on the back of the card. These are used in hotels for access to rooms, ATM cards, credit cards, driver's licenses, and many other areas.
GPS
One of the powerful tools that many mobile devices have is GPS. GPS is an acronym for Global Positioning System, a network of satellites (24 of them), computers, and receivers that can work together to calculate your exact position on earth (latitude, longitude, and altitude). This is achieved by triangulation, or comparing the time it takes for a signal to reach three different satellites. The Department of Defense built this revolutionary technology at a cost of $12 billion and it was originally intended primarily for military use. However, GPS in nonmilitary applications first appeared as turn‐by‐turn navigational aids in automobiles in 1990. Apple® made GPS a central feature of the 3.0 version of its iPhone®. This meant that you could hold the phone in your hand and look at exactly where you were walking on either a drawn map or from a satellite view. GPS is now showing up on tablet computers. Who knows, in the future, being "lost" might become an old‐fashioned idea! If you are walking around with a smartphone that's guiding you with its GPS, would it be possible to "augment" your experience with real‐time data? Yes indeed.
Augmented Reality
To augment means to increase or improve. How could a smartphone improve your own reality? Augmented reality is a term used to define a new smartphone experience in which GPS data is combined with a vast database of information about your current location. Imagine this scenario. You are walking around Times Square in Manhattan for the first time, and you are a little lost. You take out your smartphone and enter the augmented reality mode, which begins to ease your fears. First, when you aim your smartphone at various buildings, it tells you about each of them.
Once you are comfortable with your bearings, you realize you are hungry. You speak a command into the phone, such as "nearest pizza." In the blink of an eye, directions to the closest pizza shops appear on your screen, along with user reviews and recommendations. You follow your smartphone to the front door of a nearby restaurant. You sit down at a booth and enjoy a slice of authentic New York pizza while observing the view of the busy street outside. You smile, take a picture of yourself, and upload your photo and GPS coordinates to Facebook. Your friends, who are also lost several blocks away, now can easily track you down. While you wait and enjoy your pizza, you use your smartphone to purchase theater tickets, reserve a room for the night, and email your parents that you are having a fabulous time. You have just augmented your reality. The future is near at hand, and so is your trusty smartphone.
Google Glass™ is one example of this technology that can augment your reality. This is a standard pair of glasses with a camera at the top with a transparent cube. The idea is that it can display maps and information as you are walking around town. Interaction occurs via your own voice, and when you are talking on the phone, you can share what you are seeing at that moment. Google calls this Project Glass (http://g.co/projectglass (http://g.co/projectglass) ).
Questions to Consider
1. What is the "new PC"? 2. Why is mobile computing important? 3. What is an Apple® laptop called? 4. What is the difference between a laptop and a tablet? 5. List two brands of smartphones. What types of features do they provide? 6. What does the acronym GPS stand for? What three pieces of information does GPS tell you? 7. What is augmented reality?
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9.2 Tablets and Touch Screens If you have ever gone shopping to purchase a car, you have certainly noticed that all automobiles are not made alike. As you walked around the dealership, it was clear that there were significant differences in price, color, size, speed, and fuel efficiency. Ultimately, though, the cars all had four tires and were designed to get you and your cargo from point A to point B. Computers are similar in the sense that while all of them have common functions (communication and processing data), they come in different shapes and styles. We have already talked about desktop, laptop, notebook, and netbook computers. Now, we are ready to explore a final type—the tablet.
Today, the device that garners the most attention is the tablet computer. This is a thin, flat device in which the user communicates through touching a flat surface. This includes typing on a QWERTY keyboard (digitally represented on the screen) and swiping for such interactions as moving items or turning a page of a book. Pinching the screen with two fingers lets you easily zoom in and out. Tablets are powerful computers that combine portability with ease of use and operation. Major players in this market include the pioneering efforts of Apple® with its iPad®, followed by Amazon's Kindle Fire, Barnes & Noble's Nook® Tablet, Google's Nexus 7™, and Microsoft®'s Surface. Asus®, Sony®, and Samsung's Galaxy® are currently manufacturers of significant Android™ tablet computers.
What Is a Tablet Computer?
The best way to define a tablet computer is to compare it to other devices. A tablet computer, or a slate, is a portable computer that combines the mobility of a laptop with the touch screen of a smartphone. It is larger than a cell phone and therefore, has a bigger screen, greater memory, and a faster processor. It does not have the physical keyboard found in the laptop, but instead when data entry is required, a virtual keyboard appears on the screen. Since the screen is touch‐sensitive, each letter is registered when you lightly touch it. This takes some getting used to, since there is no physical sensation of a key actually being depressed (Parsons & Oja, 2010, p. 59). Although tablet computers have dominated the news of late, they have actually been around for a long time. Tablet computers have many uses—and users. For example, delivery drivers (most notably UPS) and service technicians use them to record the results of their work, such as dropping off a package or making a repair. These computers have replaced the old paper, pencil, and clipboard. The tablet computer is connected to the Internet so that information is immediately processed and made available. Figure 9.1 shows more information on who uses tablets and what for.
Figure 9.1: Tablet Users
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Tablet use is on the rise, and the majority of tablet users are college graduates who earn $75,000 or more a year. Tablets are often used for social networking and to check email.
Source: "Tablet Ownership 2013." Pew Research Center's Internet & American Life Project. 24 June 2013. Retrieved from: http:// pewinternet.org/Reports/2013/Tablet‐Ownership‐2013.aspx "Understanding Tablet Use: A Multi‐Method Exploration." Google, Inc. October 2012. Retrieved from: http://pewinternet.org/~/media//Files/Reports/2013/PIP_Tablet%20ownership%202013.pdf (http://pewinternet.org/~/media//Files/Reports/2013/PIP_Tablet%20ownership%202013.pdf)
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Here, a full size Apple® iPad® 4th generation is compared to a new Apple® iPad® mini. Do you have an iPad®? How do you use it?
AP Photo/M. Spencer Green
History of the Tablet Computer
The idea of a flat, tablet computer dates back to the 1980s. Originally, engineers sought to develop a way for people to write on portable screens with a special stylus. The tablet would translate handwriting into computer text. One of the first tablets was the Apple® Newton. It was announced with great hype and fanfare in the late 1980s, but it was a market failure because it was too expensive and did not provide the functionality it promised. But the tablet idea did not die. In the early 1990s, many people thought the electronic pen would come to rival the importance of the mouse as an input device. Microsoft® created Windows® for Pen Computing, and IBM® introduced its ThinkPad, which was originally a pen‐based system. Bill Gates continued to be a strong proponent of this device and introduced a Tablet PC in 2000 (Cowart & Knittel, 2008, p. 1357). Despite the push from companies like Apple® and Microsoft®, these early tablet computers were not as successful as hoped. They were not necessarily failures, either, if you see them as an evolutionary step in moving computing away from the desktop and toward the handheld world that we have today (Bennis & Gibson, 1998, p. 85). When you think of it this way, the Newton was the precursor to the e‐reader.
e‐Reader
The next, and far more successful stage in tablet‐like computing devices, was the e‐reader. These devices mimic a book in that they allow the user to read downloadable content such as books and magazines. Currently, the Amazon Kindle (http://www.kindle.com (http://www.kindle.com) ) has captured a significant share of this market. It is as thin as a magazine at 1/3 of an inch thick, and lighter than a paperback at 10.2 ounces. The initial versions did not use Wi‐Fi at all, but instead used 3G wireless (cell phone service that enables connectivity to the Internet) to download content. Amazon called this Whispernet, and it used the Sprint EVDO cell system in the United States. Although you had to pay for the content (such as books, magazines, and newspapers), the wireless connection was free and much more accessible than Wi‐Fi hot spots. Anywhere you used your cell phone, the Kindle could download a book in about 60 seconds.
Now, all of the Kindle versions also include Wi‐Fi. For example, the Kindle Paperwhite 3G has Wi‐Fi and the free cell tower connectivity. It has a backlit display and an 8‐ week battery life. The 6‐inch display (larger models are available) is amazingly similar to the look of real paper (using its E Ink technology), and is not affected by glare like a laptop. An e‐reader can hold about 1,500 books in its internal memory. All of the books are also stored in your own personal library in Amazon's computers, so even if your Kindle is lost or broken, your books are forever safe. Another unique feature of the Kindle is its experimental Web browser that lets you check your email for free.
The Kindle can read PDF and Word files, and is now being integrated into online education courses so you can take your electronic books with you (as you may be doing with this book on digital literacy). In May 2009, Kindle announced that it would offer textbooks from major publishers, and began running pilot programs at Arizona State, Case Western Reserve University, Pace University, and Princeton. Using the Kindle reduces textbook costs and also is more environmentally conscious because e‐ books require no paper (U.S. News and World Report, 2009).
There was an important legal case regarding price fixing and e‐books. The problem was that some publishers agreed to fix e‐book prices. As of May 2012, Simon & Shuster, Hachette, and HarperCollins have reached agreements with the states suing them (Mello, 2012).
Just as smartphones did for the cell phone industry, the iPad® changed the game for the future of tablet devices.
iPad®
In early 2010, Steve Jobs of Apple® announced the arrival of a "magical and revolutionary product" called the iPad® (Sutter & Gross, 2010). It was the next generation of the tablet computer, which Jobs promised would do for the tablet computer industry what the iPhone® had done for the cell phone industry. There were cell phones before the iPhone® and there were tablets before the iPad®, but the Apple® ingenuity and aesthetics promised to redefine the playing field.
Continuing the "i" naming strategy (from the iPod® music player and iPhone® before it), the iPad® has several important features, including a 9.7‐inch Retina display, which boasts 3 million pixels. A nice aspect of its touchpad is that it can register multiple touches at the same time. This means you can enter key combinations (such as CTRL–C for copy, or shift A for a capital letter). The iPad® is less than half an inch thick (.37 inches) and weighs only 1.44 pounds—an ideal screen size for browsing the Web, reading e‐ books and newspapers, watching movies, and responding to email. It is 9.5 in. tall and 7.31 in. wide. It connects to the Internet with Wi‐Fi and wireless connectivity through a cell phone plan. But it is also suited for productivity applications such as Word and Excel®. With a 10‐hour battery life, it is a good companion for road trips or airplane rides (http://www.apple.com/ipad/features/ (http://www.apple.com/ipad/features/) ).
A newer and smaller version is called the iPad® mini. It boasts most all of the same features as the larger version, but is more compact with a 7.9‐inch screen (http://www.apple.com/ipad‐mini/overview/ (http://www.apple.com/ipad‐mini/overview/) ).
iPad® Significance
The iPad® is not just a tablet computer; its introduction affects other industries as well. As the paper‐based newspaper business continues to struggle in many cities, existing papers are looking for new revenue streams in the world of computing. One source
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has been advertisements in electronic versions available on the Web. But one of the important ways that people have read newspapers is on the go, and the iPad® seems to be a perfect device for a marriage of the newspaper with the electronic world. The large screen allows images and text to be displayed, and in theory, people will be willing to pay for the daily electronic delivery of the local and national news in this format.
Ultimately, you, the consumer, will determine the future success of the tablet computer by placing votes with your purchasing dollars. Those purchasing dollars for tablets are now divided between Apple® and its competitors.
Android™ Tablet
Among the Apple® tablets, there are now a variety of others on the market, which run on the Android™ operating system. The main difference is that while Apple®'s iOS is a closed system, Google's Android™ is open source. This means that it opens the doors to many hardware companies that want to venture into the tablet market.
As of June 2013, CNet provided the following list of the best Android™ tablets (Franklin, 2013):
1. Google Nexus 7™ 2. Google Nexus 10 3. Samsung Galaxy® Note 8 4. Asus® Transformer Pad TF700 5. Asus® Transformer Pad TF300 6. Sony® Xperia Tablet Z 7. Samsung Galaxy® Note 10.1
Fire and Nook®
This is a highly competitive market and there are two examples of a blending of tablets and e‐readers.
Two examples of Android™ tablets are the Kindle Fire and the Barnes & Noble Nook®. The Kindle Fire, initially released at the end of 2011, has a 7‐inch color touch screen that can display 16 million colors in high resolution. With built‐in Wi‐Fi, it can access the Internet and search the Web quickly with the Amazon Silk browser. It has an app store and access to the millions of books sold by Amazon. Owners can purchase Amazon Prime, which gives them access to over 100,000 movie and TV programs. Finally, Amazon has developed a "lending library" in which users can borrow one book a month for free from a selection of over 145,000 (http://www.amazon.com/Kindle‐Fire‐Amazon‐Tablet/dp/B0051VVOB2 (http://www.amazon.com/Kindle‐Fire‐Amazon‐Tablet/dp/B0051VVOB2) ). In late 2012, Kindle released a new Kindle Fire HD with an 8.9‐inch display. This device is more of a direct competitor against the iPad®.
The Barnes & Noble Nook® is the primary competitor for the Fire because they are similarly sized and priced. In 2009, the bookstore chain announced the development of the Nook® e‐reader (http://www.barnesandnoble.com/u/nook/379003208 (http://www.barnesandnoble.com/u/nook/379003208) ). Two years later, it released the Nook® Color, and in April 2012, partnered with Microsoft®. The Nook® Color is similar to the Kindle Fire with books, apps, Web browsing, and videos also viewable with its brilliant 7‐inch color display. It can be difficult for a customer to select between the two. The Nook® also comes in a larger HD version now, which is similar in size to the Kindle Fire HD (http://www.barnesandnoble.com/p/nook‐hd‐plus‐barnes‐noble/1110060512 (http://www.barnesandnoble.com/p/nook‐hd‐plus‐barnes‐ noble/1110060512) ).
Which is better, the Fire, Nook®, or iPad® mini? Ultimately, the choice is yours based on the plans you have for the use of the device.
Questions to Consider
1. Why would you want to touch a computer screen? 2. What are the main features of the tablet computer? 3. What were some 20th‐century examples of tablet computing? 4. Who announced the availability of the iPad®? 5. What are some features of the iPad®? 6. How did Amazon.com decide to compete with Apple®? 7. What device did the bookstore Barnes & Noble release to compete with Apple®? 8. What is the main difference between the Apple® and Android™ operating systems?
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A robot brings flowers to the bust of Karel Capek, the Czech playwright who first coined the
term "robot." How can you tell
AP Photo/CTK/Michal Dolezal
9.3 Artificial Intelligence If you have a smartphone, have you ever wondered if it was really "smart"? Does it have intelligence? Is it thinking while you are using it? The goal of many computer scientists since the mid‐20th century has been to create a computer that could perform logical operations so well that it could actually learn and become sentient or conscious. The effort to achieve this is called artificial intelligence, or AI. In this section, we will explore some of the historical attempts to realize this dream, analyze the current state of the field, and (in keeping with the theme of this chapter) ponder what the future holds for AI.
What Is Intelligence?
Intelligence is a complicated notion that can be difficult to define. A typical dictionary definition might suggest that it is the "capacity for learning, reasoning, understanding, and similar forms of mental activity," but the more you think about the concept, the more difficult it is to define. The 17th‐century philosopher Descartes famously said, "Cogito ergo sum," which is Latin for "I think, therefore I am." In other words, thinking, intelligence, and self‐awareness were the measure of what it meant to have existence.
This makes sense, but logic and intelligence can become more difficult to define when we are talking about a machine. Consider this classic question: which is more accurate, an analog clock (one with moving hands) that is broken, or a digital clock (one with numbers) that eternally loses one second every day? An intelligent human might say that certainly the digital clock is best because he or she could easily approximate the correct time. However, an "intelligent" computer might approach this question with an entirely different logic. The computer might select the broken analog clock. Why? It would say that the analog clock is EXACTLY correct twice each day, and that the digital clock will be correct only once every 236 years. Therefore, the broken clock is more "accurate" from this perspective. The intuitive answer is the digital clock because it provides an approximation of truth. In a literal, logical sense, the analog clock is more correct. This question demonstrates how difficult it can be to define what is intelligent and what is not. Who is exhibiting more intelligence, the computer or the human?
Turing Test
Along with the birth of the modern computer in the 20th century came the idea, hope, and dream that one day these machines might become intelligent. One of the first people to consider the philosophical implications of intelligent machines was mathematician Alan Turing. In 1937, he developed a thought experiment that he called a Turing Machine. With it, in 1950, he proposed his Turing Test, which he believed could prove whether or not a computer was intelligent. The experiment went like this: a judge begins communicating with a person hidden behind one curtain and a computer hidden behind another. If the judge cannot tell the difference between the real person and the computer, then the computer is considered to be intelligent. The Turing Test became a founding concept in the philosophy of artificial intelligence (Leavitt, 2006).
I, Robot
The same year that Turing proposed his famous test, science fiction author Isaac Asimov popularized his "Three Rules of Robotics." The term robot dates back to 1923, when Karel Capek first coined it in his play called R. U. R. (Rossum's Universal Robots). From that point on, the word robot meant a computer that looked and acted like a human. By 1950, with advances in computers and Turing's work in artificial intelligence, Asimov began considering the implications of smart machines in his book I, Robot. His Three Laws are as follows (White, 2005, p. 55):
1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Laws.
Although Asimov initially proposed these laws in a short story titled "Runaround" in the 1940s, it was a decade later in his Foundation Trilogy that they became another cornerstone of artificial intelligence. Intelligent computers would not become monsters that ravaged society like Dr. Frankenstein's creation did. There would be nothing to fear if these laws were embedded within each machine. It was an optimistic decade, in part because of the success that programmers were having with expert systems.
Expert Systems
Actually, in the early 1950s, the term artificial intelligence had not been coined yet. This would not happen until 1956, when John McCarthy first proposed it. Herbert Simon and others demonstrated the first working AI software program, known as Logic Theorist (McCorduck, 2004, p. xxvii). Soon, programmers were developing software that could perform limited reasoning tasks brilliantly, such as playing the game of chess. Many predicted that real human intelligence would soon be achieved on the computer, but this did not happen. Broad language skills and natural intelligence proved more difficult to emulate than was originally thought.
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An IBM computer named Watson competes against human contestants on the Jeopardy! quiz show. Do you think that computers will ever be able to think as well as humans do?
term "robot." How can you tell whether or not a robot or other machine has artificial intelligence?
Instead of trying to duplicate human intelligence, programmers limited themselves to expert systems, or computers and programs that contained extensive amounts of information in a specialized field. One of the first was a computer that could perform a medical diagnosis. If a doctor entered symptoms into a computer, it would pose other questions to ask and eventually make a diagnosis of the patient's condition. Examples included expert systems known as MYCIN and Internist. MYCIN could diagnose bacterial infections, while Internist helped physicians identify infectious blood diseases (Nikolopoulos, 1997, p. 3). One of the most advanced expert systems was IBM®'s Deep Blue, which in 1997, was able to beat Garry Kasparov, the world's highest ranking chess player, in a series of six matches.
Watson on Jeopardy
Another example of an expert system was an IBM® computer named Watson who competed against real people on television episodes of Jeopardy. Watson is a question and answer machine, which reads human language and presents answers to questions from its database. Remarkably, the computer was victorious. Ken Jennings, one of the Watson competitors (and who was famous himself for a 74‐game Jeopardy winning streak) proclaimed humorously when he lost, "I, for one, welcome our new computer overlords." The New York Times claimed that the win was not "trivial," but a significant turning point. The article stated that it was "proof that the company has taken a big step toward a world in which intelligent machines will understand and respond to humans, and perhaps inevitably, replace some of them" (Markoff, 2011).
However, Watson was not perfect by any means. One question was: "Its largest airport is named for a World War II hero; its second largest for a World War II battle." Watson's answer was Toronto. Keep in mind that the question category was U.S. cities, and Toronto is in Canada. Watson's answer received some laughs from the audience. Nevertheless, the victory was, according to some, vindication that the entire field of artificial intelligence was progressing.
Watson the Robot: Landslide Victor
Human/Technological Convergence
AI and computers are impacting human life in many ways. One is a technological convergence with the human body to augment our physical capabilities. While you might think this is a futuristic idea, human/technological convergence has been in existence for centuries. In the simplest way, think of very old technologies like eyeglasses or even large horns as hearing aids. Today, these have been replaced by retina implants and implanted hearing devices.
The future has even more remarkable ideas coming. In November 2012, Wired magazine reported on the possibility of thought‐controlled robotic arms. With volunteers trying out the new appendages in early 2013, it promises a revolution in enabling humans to mimic biology and more seamlessly meld human and technology together. The inventor, Max Ortiz Catalan, said, "Our technology helps amputees to control an artificial limb, in much the same way as their own biological hand or arm, via the person's own nerves and remaining muscles" (Clark, 2012).
The medical field is certainly one area where you should expect to see more of this convergence. There are Computer Assisted Surgeries (CAS) in which complex imaging helps the surgeon navigate the body. Another example is surgery that takes place with a robot without the direct control of a human. These robots excel in performing very precise repetitive movements better than a human surgeon ("Robotic Surgery," n.d.).
A Look Further: Robotic Surgery
Watson the Robot: Landslide Victory From Title: The Hunt for AI
© Films Media Group. All Rights Reserved. Length: 2:99
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Robonaut 2 in International Space Station.
NASA
Learn more about robotic surgery by visiting: http://www.robotic‐surgery.med.nyu.edu/for‐patients/what‐robotic‐surgery (http://www.robotic‐surgery.med.nyu.edu/for‐patients/what‐robotic‐surgery)
Technology Today: Artificial Intelligence and Robots
Scientists have made great strides in the field of robotics and artificial intelligence, but they have yet to come close to developing the human‐like robots that science fiction fans are accustomed to seeing. That's because creating machines that can replicate the way humans move and think is much more difficult than it might seem.
Manufacturers have employed robots for decades, but most of them are still little more than large mechanical arms that are programmed to move parts from one place to another. These robots can work faster and for longer periods of time than humans, just as computers outperform humans at rote tasks like solving math problems.
What robots and computers still lack, however, is the ability to reason and make decisions on their own. Scientists specializing in artificial intelligence have succeeded in giving computers what appears to be a certain amount of decision‐making ability.
For instance, computer programs are widely used to render decisions in the financial services industry. These programs use what is known as neural network technology to evaluate the information of individuals applying for credit—their age, occupation, income, past credit history—and determine whether they are a good or bad risk. But these programs don't decide what information is relevant to this analysis, nor do they determine on their own what constitutes a good or bad risk.
Expert Systems
Computer programmers consult with humans who have years of experience in making such decisions and then write programs that allow computers to mimic those experts' thought processes when evaluating data.
Such programs, also referred to as expert systems, are used in a number of fields. Some hospitals use them to diagnose certain medical conditions based on a patient's vital signs (heart rate, blood pressure, and so forth). Manufacturing companies use expert systems to cut operating costs by teaching them to recognize when production machines need preventive maintenance.
Scientists continue to study the process by which the human brain acquires and adapts to new information in hopes of eventually creating computers or robots that actually can think and reason on their own.
A team of researchers in Wales created a robot called Adam that conducts its own scientific experiments. "It can think of hypotheses and then do the experiments, and we've checked that it's got the results correct," Ross King, one of the researchers, told Reuters News (RedOrbit.com, 2009). In 2012, the Bioinformatics Group at Aberystwyth University said, "The Robot Scientist is perhaps the first physical implementation of the task of Scientific Discovery in a microbiology laboratory. It represents the merging of increasingly automated and remotely controllable laboratory equipment and knowledge discovery techniques from Artificial Intelligence" ("Artificially Intelligent Robot," n.d.).
A Robot Astronaut
Meanwhile, scientists from NASA and General Motors have developed a robot that can be used in both the automotive and aerospace industries. Robonaut 2, nicknamed R2, is the second generation of a robot that NASA started working on with the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency—the same agency that created the Internet.
The first generation Robonaut, as its name implies, was intended to be a robot astronaut. Robonaut 2 has a distinct humanoid appearance, but it's likely to log more time building cars than exploring outer space. It can lift 20 pounds with each arm, about four times that of other humanoid robots, according to NASA. Its nimble hands, fingers, and opposable thumbs also enable it to use the same tools normally used by humans.
In addition to employing it in the car assembly process, GM officials expect to borrow technology used to create Robonaut 2's controls, sensors, and vision systems to develop advanced safety systems in future vehicles (Lombardi, 2010).
Links for More Information
Follow R2 at the official NASA website: http://robonaut.jsc.nasa.gov/default.asp (http://robonaut.jsc.nasa.gov/default.asp)
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View images taken by NASA: http://www.flickr.com/photos/nasarobonaut/ (http://www.flickr.com/photos/nasarobonaut/)
Can Machines Think?
Can machines think? In part, the answer depends on how we define these three simple words (Nilsson, 2002, p. 2). Begin with the word can. If by can we mean someday in the future, then the answer is yes, that is quite possible. But if we mean, "Can machines think right now?" as in having broad enough intellectual powers to pass the Turing Test, then the answer is no. The second word is machines. If by machine we mean the computer on your desk, then no, a machine cannot think. It might appear to, based upon clever programming techniques and massive processing power, but it will not attain self‐awareness and one day suddenly suggest to you, "I think, therefore I am." The final word is think. Again, there are two ways to look at this. If by think we mean a computer with the language skills to pass the Turing Test, then no, machines cannot think. However, if by think we mean a computer with enough expert knowledge to beat any human on the face of the earth in a game of chess, and even in Jeopardy, then yes, machines can think. Ultimately, the answer to this question depends on how you choose to define your terms.
Simulations
One of the final aspects of the future of computing that we will consider is simulation. Though not necessarily a part of artificial intelligence, a simulation, at its simplest level, is copying some aspect of real life and portraying that experience on a computer. You might also hear the term virtual reality to describe a simulation. Virtual reality is the use of computers to create a simulated environment that has an illusion of reality and immerses you in the experience. Computer simulations and virtual realities are used in a number of different ways. In the gaming world, you can find simulations of sporting activities such as golf and billiards. Advanced motion controls, like those found with the Nintendo Wii™, Xbox®, and other gaming consoles, add to the simulated experience by letting you swing your arm in a game of tennis while you watch the simulated character on the screen imitate your movement.
But simulations are not just for fun and games. Simulation can solve real‐world problems, analyze real‐world systems, and ask what‐if questions about life (Banks, 1998). There are many serious applications, including pilots using simulation for flight training with programs such as Microsoft® Flight Simulator. If you want to learn how to drive a bus, the first step in your training might not be sitting behind the steering wheel but instead sitting in front of a computer monitor. For example, a program released in 2010 simulates various aspects of operating a city bus. You become "Carlos," a professional bus driver, and are taught the intricacies of the job. The simulation includes driving around town, operating animated wipers under rain conditions, using the wheelchair lift, dealing with computer‐generated AI traffic, assisting virtual passengers, and driving through a virtual Times Square. The program attempts to "simulate real driving behavior" to train the next generation of drivers.
With the popularity of programs like this one, we may find that many of our future experiences become simulations. As simulations improve in features, it is possible that the distinction between what is real and what is simulated will begin to become increasingly difficult to make.
Virtualized Servers
There is a related trend, though not quite as exciting as bus driving simulations, in which computer servers are "virtualized." These replace physical hardware servers and are becoming a formidable force in the future. One example is VMware (http://www.vmware.com/ (http://www.vmware.com/) ), with the letter VM standing for virtual machine. Other examples are Microsoft®'s HyperVisor and Citrix Xen. While these have server virtualizations, they can also can virtualize the desktop in which simple computer terminals give the appearance that they are stand‐alone PCs. In reality, they are virtualized because the environment (screen icons, programs, data, etc.) are all stored remotely on a server. And where are these remote servers actually located? In the cloud.
Questions to Consider
1. Are computers intelligent? What is AI? 2. Why was the Turing Test important? 3. Who proposed the Three Laws of Robots? 4. What is an expert system? 5. What are some examples of expert systems, and what they can do? 6. Can machines think? 7. What is a computer simulation? What are some examples?
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In cloud computing, applications and data are housed online, rather than on your computer. What cloud applications do you currently use? How do they compare to your computer‐ based programs?
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
9.4 The Clouds Are Here As we approach the end of your journey into digital literacy, we must select a destination. This is difficult because computers evolve and change so quickly. But, since our final subject is the future of computing, we will conclude with what most believe is the computing shape of the future. That notion is cloud computing, which at its most basic level is the replacement of all personal computers with "dumb" terminals that have no software or complex operating systems on them. Instead, these terminals connect to a World Wide Web in which applications reside alongside your data. But this is the extreme case, and now cloud computing is integrating itself as a way to store and access data from smartphones, tablet computers, laptops, and desktops. And, it is not just data that resides in the cloud, but even applications can exist there. In fact, you might be already using some.
What Is Cloud Computing?
You already have some experience with cloud computing. In Section 5 of Chapter 7, we discussed Google's Gmail™. We can use that example here to illustrate some of the key concepts of the cloud. First of all, the cloud is a metaphor for the space on the Internet that can be used to store your data, as well as applications to manipulate it. The Gmail™ application exists online, and to use it, all you need is a connection to the Internet and a browser. Likewise, all of your email is stored in the Google databases as well, rather than on your own personal computer. If you recall, this is a significant departure from the way in which Microsoft® Outlook®'s desktop email program works. With Outlook®, the software application and your email reside on your computer and nowhere else. Therefore, Outlook® operates on your computer (as a reminder this is not to be confused with outlook.com, which is Microsoft®'s cloud‐based email system, along with hotmail.com®), while Gmail™ operates in a cloud because that is where all of your email exists, as well as the application to view, send, and receive it.
The Advantages of the Cloud
Google and other software companies are building operating systems that exist online rather than on your computer. This would make your computer very quick to turn on because there would be no complex operating system to boot up. When you pressed the power button, the only thing the computer would need to do would be to connect to the Internet. So, startup time would be measured in seconds rather than minutes.
Another advantage of cloud computing is that it would make computer viruses and malware almost nonexistent. The virus protection would take place at the cloud level, and would not be the responsibility of the individual user. As long as the cloud was protected—and the cloud engineers could have teams devoted just to this function—all of the data residing within it would be immune to attack.
A third advantage is that your programs and data would be available no matter where you were, and on any computer in front of you (as long as there was an Internet
connection). If you went to your work computer, all of your data would be accessible there. It would also be at your computer at home, at the computer terminals at the library, or at any hotel that you visited while on vacation. This would also give you a measure of protection, because if your computer at home died while you were writing a paper for school, your work would not be lost. It would still be safely resting in a cloud. You could just go over to your neighbor's house and finish your work there.
Fourth, you would never have to install or update software again. You would simply pay for it once and access it online. Whoever wrote the application would be responsible for updating it, and the next time you logged on, it would be there for you to use. Finally, one of the most important advantages of cloud computing is collaboration and sharing. If you shared your access code with people whom you allowed to have access to your data (such as other students working on a project, family members planning a reunion, or coworkers on a project), then all of you could access, share, and edit the documents in the cloud.
The Disadvantages of a Cloud
Some suggest that while the cloud is good for limited applications such as email, it could never alone represent the future of personal computing for several reasons. First, many programs are simply too complex and powerful to be operated effectively online. For example, graphics programs or games with computation‐heavy, 3‐D rendered worlds need to be run on a personal computer in order for them to be effective. The second disadvantage is privacy. With all of your data on someone else's computers, how certain can you be that no one else is spying on what you are doing? The third disadvantage is that if you do not have Internet access, your computer is worthless, and you are unable to access your data. Although the Web follows us almost everywhere we go these days, it is not everywhere that we want it to be, and sometimes access is a problem. It would be very inconvenient if we could not use our computers in such cases.
Finally, Internet outages would bring productivity in a cloud to a standstill (Velte, Velte, & Elsenpeter, 2010). There have been some notable cloud outages in the past and InfoWorld discussed the "10 worst cloud outages." Number one on the list was when "Amazon Web Services goes poof." This occurred in April 2011 when a routine configuration change caused a problem at Amazon's Northern Virginia data center. The result, according to InfoWorld, was that the system went "totally nutso." A
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Apple®'s iCloud® service, which is built into every Apple® device. How might the cloud change the way we use smartphones, music players, and tablets?
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series of problems had spiraled out of control, eventually shutting down most of Amazon's data centers in the eastern United States. The outage lasted for four days, and while no data was lost, access was suspended (Raphael, 2011).
On Christmas Eve 2012, Amazon Web Services (AWS) had a huge outage that significantly affected Netflix. As a Wall Street Journal reporter later claimed, the lesson from this was that "Any company can fail" (Schectman, 2012).
Despite these problems, enthusiasm for clouds is still on the rise. As you might guess, Amazon is not alone in the clouds.
Google's Cloud Storage™ Service
Google is a significant player in the realm of clouds. The company not only uses its cloud for its Gmail™, but also its Web‐based applications ranging from Internet searching to Google Books™. As we discussed in the last chapter, Google's Drive™ is an important location for storing your files of data and this is a cloud‐based storage system. It is hard to know how large the Google cloud (http://cloud.google.com/ (http://cloud.google.com/) ) really is, but by some estimates, it consists of hundreds of thousands of inexpensive servers (some suggest this number is a million) that store all of Google's data (and yours, too). Google estimates that over 1 million applications run on a Google Cloud Platform. Also, it has entire copies of the Web. Unlike the large mainframe computers of the past, the cloud has an impressive feature because it never grows old. A team of engineers and technicians monitor it, and when one of the servers dies (every few years), it is simply removed and replaced by a new one. The entire cloud seems to grow and regenerate more like a living being than an aging machine. Although Google and others have used this type of data system since the 1990s, it was not until 2008 that the term cloud computing was used to define it. Soon, people began to realize that this might be the wave (or the cloud) of the future that would define how a majority of computers operate (Malone, 2009, p. 112).
Google suggests that the following are the main reasons to use its cloud (https://cloud.google.com/).
1. Archive and back up data. 2. Store application data. 3. Compute at Google Scale. 4. Share data with friends and business partners. 5. Analyze large amounts of data with Google BigQuery Service. 6. Build apps and websites.
Google has a number of other cloud applications you can use in addition to Gmail™ and Google Drive™. Its Google Docs™ and Spreadsheets applications emulate Word and Excel®, although the application itself is nowhere to be found on your computer. The software is located on Google's servers, so whenever there is an update, the users do not have to reinstall or upgrade their software. The other benefit of Google Docs™ and Spreadsheets is that they are collaborative tools that can be shared with anyone who has an Internet connection, and the creator can access them from any computer. This also has a nice backup safety feature in that your data are not tied to one hard drive that might fail.
Apple®'s Cloud
Apple has recently made a significant push into the cloud, called the iCloud®. It stores and provides the user access to a number files such as documents, contact information, images, and music. The iCloud® is also now built into Apple® devices such as the iPhone®, iPad® and the Mac® (http://www.apple.com/iphone/icloud/ (http://www.apple.com/iphone/icloud/) ). What this means for the Apple® user is that the iCloud® is now integrated into all Apple® apps and allows users to sync music, apps, and pictures over multiple devices, including Apple® TV, iPad®, iPhone®s, and Mac® computing systems. This includes the following:
iTunes® Documents Apps Calendar, Contacts, and Mail: http://www.apple.com/iphone/icloud/ (http://www.apple.com/iphone/icloud/)
iBooks® Photo Stream Backup data Find my iPhone® Passbook®
A Look Further: The iCloud®
You can watch this video to learn more about it: http://www.apple.com/icloud/#video (http://www.apple.com/icloud/#video)
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Microsoft®'s Cloud
With the latest release of the Windows® 8 operating system, Microsoft® is also establishing a presence in the cloud. One important way it is doing this is with SkyDrive®. In August 2012, the company announced that its SkyDrive® passed the preview stage to become operational. Located at skydrive.com (https://login.live.com/login.srf?wa=wsignin1.0&rpsnv=11&ct=1377210687&rver=6.2.6289.0&wp=MBI_SSL_SHARED&wreply=https:%2F%2Fskydrive.live.com%2F%3Fmkt%3Den‐
US&lc=1033&id=250206&cbcxt=sky&mkt=en‐US&cbcxt=sky) , it organizes all users' documents and enables access with all associated Windows® 8 operating systems and Windows® phones. Also working with Windows® 7, it provides all users with an immediate 7 GB of data (McDougall, 2012).
PC World recently published an article stating that there were five main reasons why SkyDrive® was better than Google Drive™. First, was that it has more free storage (7 GB to Google's 2 GB). Second, it has deeper support of Microsoft® document formats. Third, it has better mobile support (for the moment). Fourth, it has better pricing (such as $30 per year for an extra 25 GB). Finally, SkyDrive® also works seamlessly with Mac® iOS operating systems (Paul, 2012).
For an opposing view, PC World also published the reasons why Google Drive™ was better than the SkyDrive®. These included better search capabilities, video previews, and more paid storage options (Oswald, 2012).
Ultimately, the choice of clouds is yours to make. And they are not the only ones to consider.
Dropbox, Amazon, and Other Examples of the Cloud
SkyDrive® is not the only cloud backup system. Carbonite.com is another way to back up all of the current data on your computer in real time to the cloud. Once you sign up and pay a yearly subscription fee for this service, it operates in the background, saving a copy of each of your files to its own cloud. When a file is backed up, a small green dot appears in the bottom left‐hand corner of the icon that represents the file to indicate it is safe. This is an excellent way to protect against computer crashes. Hewlett Packard has announced that it will be using Canonical's UBUNTU Linux® as a way to enter the cloud. Another hardware manufacturer, Asus®, is a cloud as an extension to its computers. Likewise, Dell™ computers have a Data Safe, which is information that can be backed up into the cloud.
Launched in September 2008, Dropbox is also a major player in the cloud (https://www.dropbox.com/ (https://www.dropbox.com/) ). As of July 2012, 50 million people used Dropbox and were adding 1 billion new files every 48 hours. Many new computers are even preloaded with Dropbox software. And today, about 250 million devices have Dropbox on it. What is it? Dropbox can be used to save any file (such as photos, videos, or documents) and the file will be saved on the Dropbox site as well as other devices (like your computer, tablet, and phone). This lets people access and share files easily, plus it's free to use (https://www.dropbox.com/news/company‐info (https://www.dropbox.com/news/company‐info) ).
One final example is Amazon Web Services (http://aws.amazon.com (http://aws.amazon.com) ). Founded in 2006, it provides a service for all companies that require computing power, services, and storage. The benefit is that it is infinitely scalable. If a company grows from 2 people to 100 people overnight, all you need to do is write a check to Amazon and you will instantly have 50 times more storage or computing power than you had the day before. What are some examples of how this service could be used? If you were a media company that wanted customers to see videos, you could rent storage space in the Amazon cloud. Or, if you were a pharmaceutical company, you could rent Amazon's processing power to perform an intensive simulation experiment. The examples are numerous, demonstrating that the cloud is not just for individuals but for businesses as well. In fact, there are four different types of clouds that you might see.
Four Information Clouds
Now that we have explored some specific uses of the cloud, let's consider some general information about them. Thomas Vander Wal suggested that there will be a hierarchy of four types of clouds. The first will be the Global Information Cloud, which is essentially the Internet. It will remain accessible to everyone who has a computing device with connectivity features. The second cloud in the hierarchy is the External Information Cloud. This is represented by the closed and private data of an organization. Examples are an extranet that you might have at work. The third cloud is the Local Information Cloud. The owner maintains control here, and those who have access must have membership privileges. An example would be a LAN set up at a friend's home where everyone brought their own computers to play a shared game. The final cloud is the Personal Information Cloud. This represents all the digital data that you have created yourself. It could be as simple as a phone number or as extensive as every photo you have ever taken with a digital camera. Each of us would maintain complete access and control over our personal cloud (Malone, 2009, p. 115).
And with more and more people owning smartphones, tablets, and other mobile devices, the cloud will continue to grow, as shown in Figure 9.2.
Figure 9.2: Number of smartphone and tablet users in the U.S.
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The number of people using smartphones and tablets has increased each year since 2010.
Based on data from eMarketer.com. (2011). One in three online consumers to use a tablet by 2014. Retrieved from http://www.emarketer.com/Article/One‐Three‐Online‐Consumers‐Use‐Tablet‐by‐2014/1008701 (http://www.emarketer.com/Article/One‐Three‐Online‐Consumers‐Use‐Tablet‐by‐2014/1008701) ; Statista. Forecast: number of smartphone users in the U.S. 2010‐2016. Retrieved from: http://www.statista.com/statistics/201182/forecast‐of‐ smartphone‐users‐in‐the‐us/ (http://www.statista.com/statistics/201182/forecast‐of‐smartphone‐users‐in‐the‐us/) ; Statista. Forecast: U.S. tablet PC users 2010‐2015. Retrieved from: http://www.statista.com/statistics/199761/forecast‐of‐tablet‐pc‐users‐in‐ the‐united‐states‐from‐2010‐to‐2015/ (http://www.statista.com/statistics/199761/forecast‐of‐tablet‐pc‐users‐in‐the‐united‐states‐from‐ 2010‐to‐2015/) .
Questions to Consider
1. What is the future of computing? 2. What is cloud computing? 3. How would you describe the cloud? What is in it? 4. What are some advantages and disadvantages of cloud computing? 5. What are some current examples of cloud computing? 6. What are four types of information clouds, and what is their hierarchy?
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Summary In this final chapter, our goal was to focus on the present and future of computing. One of the most important emerging trends today is how mobile our computers are. From smartphones to tablets, we can take the power of computing with us on the go, and not sacrifice our connection to work, play, or the world at large. Another key trend is that our computing devices are increasingly anticipating our needs as artificial intelligence gradually becomes more sophisticated. Another likely development is that more of our life will be experienced as online simulations, such as flight simulation that assists in real‐world training of airline pilots. Finally, we looked at one of the most important visions of the future of computing—the cloud. More and more, we will find that our data and our applications are not residing on our own computers but instead somewhere in cyberspace. This is a powerful trend because while we will need an Internet connection to access it, our data will be available to us wherever we might go.
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Key Ideas
Two of the most significant new computing devices in the last few decades are the smartphone and tablet. Smartphones, like the iPhone® and Android™ devices, represent the convergence of phone, GPS, texting, and computer in a size that comfortably fits into a pocket. This enables people to be in constant contact with friends and family. It also has the potential to literally augment our reality with computer‐ mediated, real‐time information about where we are located at any given moment. Tablet computing has introduced another dimension of computer interactivity with the prevalence of touch screens, powerful processing capability, and easy mobility. The goal of many computer scientists since the mid‐20th century has been to create a computer that could perform logical operations so well that it could actually learn and become sentient or conscious. The effort to achieve this is called artificial intelligence, or AI. Cloud computing is an idea that has moved past an emerging idea to become what most believe is the computing shape of the future.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. If you could only own one new computer technology that we have covered in this chapter, which would it be and why? 2. Compare and contrast the different ways to interact with a computer that we have discussed in this book. The main ones are physical keyboard, a mouse,
voice commands, and touch screens. What are the benefits and drawbacks of each? Will one become more predominant in the future? 3. With the advancements and portability of smartphones and tablet computers, what do you think the future holds for the desktop computer? 4. Do you think computers are intelligent, or it is an illusion of intelligence created by sophisticated programming techniques? 5. What ways are you using cloud computing in your life? If you are not using it, where might be some areas that you would like to give it a try? What benefits
do you see with cloud computing?
Key Terms
Click on each key term to see the definition.
3G wireless (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Cell phone service that enables connectivity to the Internet.
4G wireless (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
The latest and fastest cell phone connection speed. The name refers to it being the fourth generation of standards.
artificial intelligence (AI) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
A computer that simulates or achieves true intelligence.
augmented reality (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
A term used to define a new smartphone experience in which GPS data is combined with a vast database of information about your current location.
cloud computing (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
The replacement of all personal computers with "dumb" terminals that have no software or complex operating systems on them, but instead connect to the World Wide Web where applications and data reside.
expert systems (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Computers and programs that contained extensive amounts of information in a specialized field.
GPS (Global Positioning System) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
A network of satellites (24 of them), computers, and receivers that can work together to calculate your exact position on earth (latitude, longitude, and altitude).
PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
A small, handheld computer, initially sold by Palm and Visor, that offered calendars, datebooks, organizational software, and gaming applications.
robot (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
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A computer that looks and acts like a human.
simulation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Copying some aspect of real life and portraying that experience on a computer.
smart card (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
A card that is small like a credit card, made of plastic, and contains an embedded integrated circuit.
tablet computer (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
A portable computer that combines the mobility of a laptop with the touch screen of a smartphone.
triangulation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
A method of finding location by measuring the angles and/or distance from three other known points. It is used to find locations for all GPS, or Global Positioning Systems.
Turing Test (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
A test proposed by Alan Turing in 1950 to determine whether or not a computer was intelligent.
virtual reality (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
The use of computers to create a simulated environment that has an illusion of reality and that immerses you in the experience.
Wi‐Fi (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover/books/AUINF103.13.2/sections/cover#)
Wireless connection to the Internet.
Web Resources
To learn more about Artificial Intelligence at MIT, go to: http://www.csail.mit.edu/ (http://www.csail.mit.edu/)
To explore Microsoft® Flight Simulator, visit: http://www.microsoft.com/games/flightsimulatorX/ (http://www.microsoft.com/games/flightsimulatorX/)
For more information about the cloud computing yearly conference, visit: http://cloudcomputingexpo.com/ (http://cloudcomputingexpo.com/)
To learn how the cloud works, see: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TTNgV0O_oTg (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TTNgV0O_oTg)
