COMM ASSESS IV

ffi Ffr. ffi L$ira

#il Take Action Having goals and objectives, making a master list, prioritizing your work, and managing interruptions wont be enough to achieve increased productivity unless you act. The final element in managing your time and managing communication in order to increase your efficiency is to turn your plans into action. One strategy that can help you take appropriate action to accomplish your goals and objectives is to use the power of reflection.

One of your most powerful time management/communication management tools is

the power of reflection. When you reflect, you take time for an important but not urgent task to review what you need to do next. As we emphasized at the beginning of this appendix, becoming aware of what keeps you from achieving your work goals and having clear goals and objectives is the starting place for taking concrete steps to working more

efficiently.

AppENDrx ManagingTime: Managing Communication

. ' RescueTime <rescuetime.com> and JournalLive <journal Live.com>: These two free programs help you keep track

of what you do with your time while on the computer.

. Dropbox <getdropbox,com>: This free software lets you sync files among several computers so you don't have to

hunt for a file on your desktop computer that may be on your laptop.

. Jott <iott.com>: lf ,t7ou need to make a quick reminder note but donl have a pencil or pen handy, you simply call a phone number, leave a recorded message, and then later you'll receive an email message with your message

now in text format.

. File0enter <lucion.com>: This program is a document management system that permits you to scan large amounts of paperwork so you can easily track where you've electronically filed it.

inIrns, ri*finlNi*ti:; Xobni o<obni.com> program that assist in managing email messages and afi achments.

MindManager <mindiet.com> software program that uses a mind-mapping technique to make links between ideas; it Provides tools to take notes and capture ideas while keeping upcoming major projects in mind,

Evernote <evernote.com> software used to consolidate the user's notes and ideas. It also helps find entries that have been submitted.

RescueTime <rescurtime.com> and JournalLive <journallive. com) program that helps keep track of how one spends time while on the computer.

Dropbox <getdropbox.com> file-syncing software that allows one to link files from several computers.

Jott <iott.com> system where one can simply call phone number, leave a message, and then receive an email message with the information in text format.

FileC6nter <lucion.com> document management system that permits you to scan large amounts of paperwork to easily track its electronic filing,

Communication $ki I ls di:iffi Digital Age

How Technology Can Help You Manage Time

You don't manage time, you manage what you do with your

time: You manage your communication, Here are several software programs and application$ that time management

expert$ recommend to help You manage information and mes-

sages that you send and receive each day.16

. Xobni <xobni.com>: This free program helps you manage email messages and attachments.

r MindManager <mindiet.com>: This low-cost software program is based on the mind'mapping technique of mak'

ing links between the ideas you develop. lt provides tools

to help you take notes and capture ideas while simultane-

ously helping you keep maior proiects in mind.

r Evernote <euemote,com>: lf you currently use sticky notes or other methods to record ideas and information, this free

software program can help you consolidate all of you scrib'

bles in one place and also help you find what you've written,

Meet people in their oftce or workspace rather than yours. If you are in someone else's office, you are less likely to get involved in a long conversation from which you cant escape. When the meeting is in your office, you have nowhere else to go; if you're visit- ing in a colleague's office you can keep the meeting short'

\,brbally communicate how much time you have for a visit. Let others know what your time limits are. You might say, "fanice, I'm due at a meeting in ten minutes, can we discuss this issue in that time?" We're not suggesting that you lie about meetings or other appointments to avoid conversations. But do honestly let others know of your time parameters.

If you have an administrative assistant, ask him or her to announce when your next appointment is, which will help you signal the need to end a meeting.

Verbally signal that your time is up. By sayrng, "Do you have any final observations before we conclude our visit?" you send a clear message that your time is limited. With some people you may need to be even more explicit: "Ken, I'm sorry, but I have to conclude our meetingl'

AppElorx ManagingTime: Managing Communication

Principles two and three, effectively using and interpreting verbal and nonverbal mes- sages, are also important in managing your time wisely. Your ability to make written lists and to prioritize the items on those lists are key verbal competencies that, if used wisely, can increase your productivity, Managing interruptions involves using several nonverbal com- munication behaviors so as to increase fficiency.

The fourth principle, being able to listen and thoughtfully respond, is critical to increasing your efficiency, There are many times when hearing a message accurately in the first place would have saved time, energy, and expense of redoing a project or task. Accu- rately interpreting what others say is directly linked with increased efficiency and goal achievement.

Finally, the fifth princrple of appropriately adapting messages to others is key to managing time. Being able to assess situations and appropriately customize messages and behaviors to accomplish tasks are essential to both effective communicatign and achievement of goals,

Even without reading this appendix, you probably have a good sense of what a good time manager does, as well as what people do who are less skilled in efficiently managing their time. Table A.1 lists the results of a survey that identified the top ten time wasters. To h"lp you get a sense of the time management issues that confront you, make a note of the behaviors on the list that you have found yourself doing. Note how many of the time wasters relate to how we com- municate with others. Whether it's the phone, email, text messages, visitors, meetings, social- izing or explicitly poor communication, directly or indirectly most of those factors recognized as time \,vasters are linked to how we communicate with others. A first step to improving your response to those obstacles is being aware ofthose behaviors that decrease productivity.

Besides noting time wa$ters that you may be guilty of from time to time, another way to increase your awareness of your time management competence is to conduct a time audit. Thke a moment to complete the time audit form in Rating Scale A. 1. After each activity listed, estimate how much time (rounded off to quarter and half hours) you spend in a 24-hotr period doing each activity. The scale indicates a target amount, which you may or may not agree with, but which gives you something to compare your own time estimates to. Once you've estimated how much time you spend performing each activity, review your estimates tb determine if you're comfortable with the time you currently spend on these tasks. If you?J like to spend more time doing an activity (such as sleeping or pursuing a hobby) draw an arrow pointing up next to that activity. If you want to spend less time performing an activity (such as traveling or commuting to and from work or school), draw an arrow pointing down to indicate you'd rather spend less time doing this task. Your time management audit can begin to reveal howyou'd like to spend your time on a typical day.

TABLE A.X

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Management by crisis

Telephone/email interruptions

lnadequate planning

Attempting too much

Drop-in visitors

lneffective delegation

Personal disorganization

Lack of self-discipline

lnability to say no

Procrastination

$; Eiitj

{iiri

AppEirDrx ManagingTime: Managing Communication

Numher ol Hours

dc

d3 !

o\g d E6tit 0go e6 @

? f

*'ffiH'HA" 1 wrr"reYourTime Goes3 Daily Activity (Monday-Friday)

Utility Time

Sleeping

Bathing, Dressing

Eating

Traveling

Total Utility Time

Employment Time/Academic Tlme

Wo rkin g/Stu dyin g/Atte nd i n g C I a ss es/Tea c h i n g

Breaks

Waiting

Socia lizing

Total Employment Time

Discretionary (Leisure) Time

Watching TV

Athletic and Health Activities

Hobbies, Housework

Family and Social Activities

Total Discretionary Time

I U2

1Y2

lYt

1ly,

I 112

114

U4

I

1

112

1

1

3Y2

24 24

ffi Develop Written Goals and Objectives Without a map, directions, or a GPS system, it's difficult to navigate from one city to another

or to find an unfamiliar address. fust as you need a map or a GPS to help you get where you're going, you also need a map ofyour work destinations. To manage your time well (and

manage your communication, too), you need to establish goals and objectives to clearly identifywhere you want to go. Being able to develop clear and well-written goals and objec-

tives is the first step in working and communicating more eficiently.a

THIS BUHI'{ER. ISNT A I ONLY

COI.{PLETE ALLOCATED I^JASTE OF TIr{E FoR

TIF{E. THIN65 } THAT ARE./ n),,

cHArTER 6 Helating to 0thers at W0rk

Understanding the nature of relational conflict on the job is the first step in learning howto manage conflict at work. The elements of our definition will guide you in diagnosing

the conflict and identifying the causes of the conflict. Also, knowing how relational conflict

is communicated (through competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, or accom-

modating) allows you to be prepared to manage conflict, which is thg-focus of the next sec-

tion ofthis chapter.

Skills for Managing Emotions One problem that most people have when trying to manage conflict is controlling their emotions. Most conflicts provoke emotional responses: anger, hurt feelings, frustration, fear, or defensiveness. Of all the emotions that people can feel on the job, frustration apd

anger are the most commonly experienced emotions.52 According to Anne Kreamer, who

studies and reports on workplace emotions, the main cause of the frustration and anger is

coworkers who are not doing their share of the work.53 So what do you do with your emo-

tions at work? Should you check them at the office door or should you recognize and process them? Kreamer argues that "it's high time we get rational about emotions in the workplace."54

Emotions play an instrumental role in how you solve problems. Again, research data does not support the old assumption that emotions only get in the way of rational thinking. Cognitive neuroscientists Mary Helen Immordino-Yang and Antonio Dama- sio argue that emotions and thinking should not be separated.ss Emotional thougltt is the term they use to describe how people solve problems.56 The emotional and think- ing systems in the brain work together in a synthetic manner to solve important prob- lems. For example, if you've ever been caught not doing your share of the work on an important project, you probably felt embarrassed and ashamed. These emotions have a "stickiness" that remain in your memory and prevent you from repeating the same mistake.

Although some people *ant to express their anger and frustration to show the other person their level of anger and frustration and to release bottled-up emotions, these emo- tional outbursts usually ignite the other persons emotions and result in emotional conta- gion. Like conflict in general, emotions are like a virus that spreads very quickly from one person to another.sT We have a tendency to mimic each other's behaviors. If you approach a conflict situation in a hostile or defensive manner, the other person, maybe even without knowing it, starts mimicking your behaviors and begins feeling hostile and defensive too.s8 If youte going to be successful at managing a conflict, you must become aware of the con- tagion effect and try to prevent it from occurring. Although you do not have control over the other person's emotions, you can afect his or her emotions indirectly by managing your own emotions during a conflict conversation. Here are a few suggestions for howyou might prevent the contagion effect.

SEI-ECT A MUTUALLY ACCEPTABLE TIME AND PLACE TO DISCUSS THE CONFLICT. LCt

the other person know that you would like to discuss something important and find out when the other person might be available. Make sure this time works for you and your schedule too. If you or the other person is tired, there's a risk of becoming locked in an emotion-charged confrontation. It's best to have a conflict conversation when you're both well-rested. Also, make sure you have some privacy for your conversation'

MONITOR THE EMOTIONAL TEMPERATURE. Let the other person know that you expect the conversation to be respectful and that if the conversation becomes too emo- tional, you will call a "time-out" or postpone the conversation until the emotions have sub- sided. For example, you might say, 'lI know we both feel strongly about the decision not to promote Leslie to unit manager, but I hope we can calmly discuss other alternatives for

PART Two Helationship Skills

her career developmentl'Verbal messages like this acknowledge feelings but also reinforce expectations for being polite to one another.

BE NONVERBALLY RESPONSIVE TO OTHERS. Emotions are conveyed primarily through nonverbal messages. And remember that we dont have as much control over our nonverbal messages as we do our verbal messages; emotions have a tendency to "leak" out of us in our nonverbal behavior. Many times these leaked cues convey negative emotions. Although it is natural to have a closed body orientation (to cross arms and pull back) dur- ing conflict conversations, try remaining nonverbally responsive to the other person. Make appropriate eye contact. Ensure an open body position by facing the person, uncrossing arms and legs, leaning forward, and using appropriate head nods. Nonverbally responsive messages have a tendency to defuse or neutralize negativeremotions.

AVOID PERSONAL ATTACKS, NAME.CALLING, PROFANITY, AND G LINNY-SACKING.

Because conflict situations are usually emotionally charged, it is easy to resort to what conflict researchers refer to as "below-the-belt" fighting.se This type of conflict is ex- pressed by attacking the individual and making the conflict personal. Profanity, which is usually not acceptable in the workplace, or a personal attack is usually reciprocated by the other person. This cycle of negative emotional expression needs to be broken if there is to be any hope of managing the conflict constructively. Another way to manage emo- tions is to avoid engaging in gunny-sacking, or kitchen-sink fighting.60 Gunny-sacking occurs when a person begins discussing a single conflict situation and then continues to unload or dump on the other person all of the things that have been bothering him or her. Essentially, itb emptying the 'gunny-sack' of grievances. This tlpe of conflict man- agement is perceived as unfair by most people and increases negative emotions. To avoid gunny-sacking, limit the scope of your conflict conversation to a single issue rather than multiple issues.

Skills for Managing Conflict Conversations Imagine you're having a problem with your coworker Michael. Rather than talking behind his back, you discuss the problem with Michael directly, But while you're talking, something happens almost without your knowing it: Michael "spins" the conversation so that the problem seems to be about you and not him. It happens quite often, and it can be frustrating. If we're not careful, people can hijack conflict conversations. When this happens, we walk away from the conflict conversation asking ourselves, "How did that happen? why did I let him do that?" In reality, the problem is not just the other person's and it's not just yours. Because you and the other person are interdependent, the prob- lem belongs to both ofyou.

To keep your conflict conversation on track and work toward a solution acceptable to both individuals, consider structuring your conversation using what we refer to as the PUGSS model of conflict management. Each letter of the PUGSS acronym represents a dif- ferent part of the conversation:6l . P = Describe the Problem . lJ = Achieve Understanding . G=ldentifyGoals r S-Brainstorm Solutions r S = Select the best Solution

The advantage to using the PUGSS model is that it keeps conflict conversations focused, and it helps people prepare their conflict messages. Here's how the process works.

cHArTER 6 Helating to 0thers at Work

DESCRIBE THE PROBLEM. What is the other person saying or doing that is bothering

you? Using "I" language, describe the problematic behavior. "This is what I see you doing. This is what I hear you sayrng.This is how I'm feelingi'

ACHIEVE UNDERSTANDING. Make sure the other person und6istands the problem.

Simply ask, "Do you know why this is a problem?" You might want to ask the person to

paraphrase what she or he hears you saying to confirm understanding. Ifthe person doesnt understand, which is common, then continue to describe the problem but in a different way. It is important not to continue to the next step in the conversation until you're confi- dent that the other person understands the problem.

Also, make sure the person doesn't hijack or deflect the conversation and make the problem about you. For example, if you're discussing with an employee the fact that the p..ro, is frequently late, theimployee may change the subject and mention that y6u need to be less rigid and more understanding. If this occurs, tell the person that youd be happy to follow up at another time to hear his or her thoughts about your being rigid and not understanding. Then redirect the conversation back to the employeet tardiness problem. In other words, keep the conversation focused on the employeet behaviors, not on yours. That's a different conversation that should be conducted at another time.

IDENTIFy GOALS, Next, let the other person know what you want and need. Find out what the other person wants and needs. Once you have identified individual goals, identify

the goals you have in common. Build on your common goals. For example, if you're work- ing with an employee who is constantly late to work, you might mention that the goal you

have in common is for this person to remain employed. You might say, "I know you want to keep your job, and I want you to keep your job too. Our goal is the same. Now lett work together to reach this goali' People are usually surprised to find out that they have a number

of common or similar goals. .

BRAINSTORM SOLUTIONS, Now that the problem and goals have been identifled, it's time to find a solution. Ask, "What can we do to fix the problem? How can we ensure that both of our goals are met?" Withhold all evaluation and generate as many creative solutions as possible.

SELECT THE BEST SOLUTION. Finally, select the best solution. Evaluate each of the brainstormed solutions and compare each to the goals you've identified. If a solution doesnt

meet the goals of both people, then it's not the besf solution. Continue evaluating each solu-

tion until you come up with one that meets all the goals identified earlier. Figure 6.4 reflects how PUGSS might unfold in a real relational conflict in the work-

place. This particular conflict, which actually occurred, involves two employees who work in the same office. One of the employees, Marisa, brings her infant daughter to work be- cause she has been unable to arrange child care. The other employee, Rick, is distracted by the child's crying and often ends up doing Marisa's work.

For most people, working through conflict is troublesome and difficult because theret so much uncertainty. We have no idea how the conflict conversation is going to go. This uncertainty produces a lot of anxiety. One of the advantages of using PUGSS to structure your conflict conversations is that it makes managing and resolving conflict like working through a script. To reduce the uncertainty and anxiety, we encourage you to plan your conflict conversations and structure them using the PUGSS model'

There is simply no way to escape relational conflict at work. To manage conflict when it occurs, first ensure that the workplace climate is conducive to managing conflict. Work- place environments that are supportive, trusting, caring, and accepting ensure that rela- tional conflict is managed well. Second, manage your emotions carefully by managing

Rick:

Describing the Problem Do you have a second? I have a problem and I know that you can help me fix it.

Sure, come in. What's the p;oblem? How can I help?

Something has been bothering me.

What is it?

I haven't been able to get much work done lately. I begin a project that requires concentration and then I hear your child crying. The other day she cried from 9:00 a.m. until 11:00. I was feeling very frustrated.

Yes, she was not having a good day. l'm so sorry.

I have also had other employees assign me work that is usually given to you. Yesterday, the Director of Marketing asked me tdstuff all of these envelopes and I don't even report to her. I feel like l'm getting dumped on because others don't want to burden you with additional work. I'm feeling a bit abused by this situation, and l'm frustrated and anxious.

Achieving U nderstandlng Rick: Do you understand why this is a problem for me? Marisa: I think so. Here's what I hear you saying: My child bothers you and others are

dumping my work on you because they perceive me as having too much to do, with my child and everything else.

Rick: Your child is not the distraction, but her crying is. Marisa: I also didn't know that others perceived me as ineffective. Rick I don't think anybody thinks you're ineffective at all-l just think they perceive

you as having your hands full with your workload and your child. Marisa: I understand. Again, I apologize for this and l'm glad you brought this problem

to my attention. Let's fix it. Rick: What do you suggest we do to fix the problem?

ldentifying Goals Marisa: What do you need to get your job done? Rick: I need a quiet work environment. I also need others to know that you're available

so they stop giving me your work. I don't feel our work is equally distributed. What do you need?

Marisa: I need to be able to care for my daughter and work at the same time. Being a single working mother is challenging.

Rick: Well, yes-l can't even imagine how hard it must be. Marisa: Well, we both need our jobs and we Iike working here. . . . Rick: Also, we're good friends and I don't think we want this to damage

our friendship.

Marisa: I agree completely. What do you see as being a workable solution?

Bralnstorml ng Solutions Rick: How about having your parents care for her while you're working? Marisa: I could see if I could change offices so we wouldn't bother you. Rick: How about seeing if the company might help you finance daycare? Marisa: How about you change your work schedule and work nights? ls that a possibility? Rick: Could you get a babysitter with whom you could exchange babysitting services?

For example, you sit with the other person's child on the weekends and this person could sit with your child during the week.

FIGUBE 0.1 The PUGSS Approach to Gonflict

Selecting the Best Solutlon

Marisa: Why don't I see if I could change my office so that my daughter and I will be out of your way?

Rick: I think that would meet my need for a quiet workplace; however, I still believe people will perceive you as having your hands full and they will come to me. is it'possible for your parents to care for your child during the day?

Marisa: Well, unfortunately my parents aren't capable of caring for my daughter. They,re not comfortable around babies. My mother pops Valium every time

we step foot in the house and my dad leaves once my daughter begins to cry.

Rick: What about exchanging babysitting services with a neighbor? Marisa: That idea might work. . . . My neighbor is a firefighter and he works two

24-hour shifti during the weekend' I could watch his kids all weekend, t and I believe he would be willing to watch my daughter during the workday.

Rick That would meet both of my needs and yours. Do you agree? Marisa: I do agree. All I want is good childcare for my daughter and to keep my job.

flGuRE 6"4 lcontinuedl

conflict at the appropriate time and place, explaining your expectations for how you will treat each other during the conflict conversation, being nonverbally resPonsive, and

avoiding personal attacks, name-calling, profaniry and gunny-sacking. Third, plan and

structure your conflict conversations to ensure that you reach a solution you both can agree on.

Skills for Managing Bullies Although we re used to hearing about bullies on playgrounds and in high school hallways,

we're not used to hearing about them in business and professional contexts. Unfortu- nately, bullying in the workplace is becoming more and more of a problem at work. Com-

munication researcher Pamela Lutgen-Sandvik and her colleagues report that 1 in 3 of all

workers in the United States have been bullied sometime during their work history.62 According to Lutgen-Sandvik, workplace bullying is an extreme, negative, and persistent

form of emotional workplace abuse achieved primarily through verbal and nonverbal communication.63 Four characteristics diferentiate workplace bullying from other forms

of employee abuse: (1) bullying communication behaviors are extreme and intense, (2)

the behaviors persist over long periods and result in negative effects, (3) targets or those butlied believe these communication acts are intentional, and ( ) targets feel they cannot defend themselves in the situation.64 Examples of bullying may include some of the fol- lowing behaviors:

when someone criticizes you when there is no reason to justify the criticism

When someone falsely blames you

When someone treats you differently than the rest of your work group

When someone swears at you

When someone intentionally excludes you from important activities

When someone shouts at you or humiliates you

When someone makes you the target of practical joke

When someone excessively monitors you

A leader is held responsible for managing these difficult and often challenging situa- tions. There are a number of strategies for managing bullies in the workplace. Figure 6.5 examines two best practices: talking to the bully and writing a letter to the bully.

cnnpreR 6 fielating to 0thers at Work

terms,:,, rjefirii{iilns

Workplace bullying an extreme. negative, and persistent form of emotional workplace abuse achieved primarily through verbal and nonverbal communication.

Communication Skil ls tXilffi Digital Age

Many of todayt entrepreneurs are using their Facebook for work and for pleasure. Because 0f their careful use of social

media, these ambitious leaders are blurring the lines between

their private and public lives in a seamless manner. 0ne ex-

ample of this is Ms. Bandy Yezak, an animal science maior from Texas A & M University, who uses her Facebook to sell necklaces, bracelets, earrings, rings, and other accessories

under the name "southern Jewlz," in addition to managing her personal relationships. Her two'year-old business has

8,000 fans on Facebook and her online sales have doubled in a

six-month period,66

Applying Your Skills6T t Don't have twl profiles*one for personal and one for

professional. lf Facebook learns that you have two pro- files, they may shut down your account. The lines be- tween personal and professional are blurring' You should

be transparent and confident enough t0 let them blur. 0f course there are some photos that you may not want your

workplace colleagues to view. Facebook has excellent privacy settings that can be customizad s0 your profes-

sional connections are limited in what they can view. Be'

come familiar with thess privacy settings'

: Do create a FacebookpageforYourbusrness. Profiles are meantfor people,whereas pages are meantfor business.

The Do's and Don'ts of Using Facebook forWork6s

cumrrn 6 Relating to 0thers at Work

'Because pages were meantfor businesses, they have dif'

ferent features that make them more valuable for a busi-

ness. For example, business pages donl need to "accept"

friend requests; they can get "liked" by anyone. Also, business pages come with viewer information so you

know if you're reaching your customers and market on Facebook,

t Dont turn off wall ppsts for your business page' The point of Facebook is to interactwith your customers' Turning off

wall posts or comments screams to your customers, "We

don't want to hear from you." Be prepared for what cus-

tomers might post, and be readyto respond in a timely and

authentic manner. Every time a user interacts with your

page, that interaction gets in front 0f that user's network,

spreading your reach far beyond your existing customer

base. Use this unique opportunity carefully'

t Do update your business page on a regular basrs. lf you ignore it, your customers are going to ignore it as well. Your Facebook page should be an interactive platform

where you and your customers interact regularly. lf you

update your business page with interesting content, your

users are more likely to engage with your page, and their

interactions get shown to their networks, expanding your

reach exponentially. This virality is what makes Facebook

such an incredibly powerful toolfor businesses.

'ffiil Negotiating Solutions at Work Another important tool essential to effective leadership is negotiation, which is a particular

type of conflict management. Negotlation has been defined as an exchange of proposals

urrd .orrt..proposali as a means of reaching a satisfactory settlement to a conflict'68 Whereas all negotiation is a form of conflict management, not all conflict management is

negotiation, For example, if you supervise an employee who comes to work under the influ-

ence ofalcohol, you have a conflict that needs to be managed. There is no negotiation. The

employee violated one of the workplace rules that usuallyresults in immediate termination'

In contrast, negotiation occurs when there is room for bargaining or for give-and-take. You

give some and the employee gives some until you reach a solution that suits both of you. In short, you exchange proposals and counterproposals until you can agree. During negotia-

tion, your proposals change and evolve. It's rare to leave the negotiation process with your

first proposal untouched. lbu will use negotiation strategies during the interview process when a company oflers

you a job. You have an idea of what the position and your skills are worthl however, the

company also has an idea of a starting salary for you. That's when you begin the negotiation

process, For example, you will take the job for $35,000. The company offers $27,000 and an

extra week ofvacation. After a strategic conversation, you and the companyt representative

agree on an annual salary of $31,000 without the extra week of vacation. This illustrates the

exchange of proposals and counterproposals. Another example would be when you're

i*rn;s ',, d*finitinns Negotiation an exchange of proposals and counterproposals as a means of reaching a satisfactory settlement to a conflict.