Socio-cultural anthropology questions.
Cosmology Similar to a culture but emphasizes how/what counts as science, religion, politics,economics, morality, ethics, nature, and the ultimate truth of the world or universe are all connected especially in terms of the categorical understandings of a culture. SapirWhorf Hypothesis Talks about the influence of language on thought and perception and categorical thinking. what is “wrong”, “very wrong”, “bad” "We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native language. The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscope flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds — and this means largely by the linguistic systems of our minds. We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way— an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language […] all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar, or can in some way be calibrated.” Ex. the idea of empty was equated with safe for these people when in fact the empty containers were more dangerous because they contained more flammable vapors. Franz Boas Commitment to empiricism (emphasis on experience and evidence from observation/experiment as opposed to basing knowledge on tradition or an innate understanding).
Field research and extended residence, learn Language, social relations with Informants Emphasized the importance of culturally acquired norms as opposed to biological determinism Rejected a notion of cultural evolution or stages of cultural evolution of the savage, the barbarian, and the civilized. Refuted biological conceptions of race Boas made some innovations to his study: ◦He learned the local language and talked to people ◦He stayed a long time and participated in the everyday life of people ◦He learned their technologies and way of life ◦He defended Inuit way of life as logical,reasonable and deserving respect Ethnography the study and systematic recording of human cultures and individual customs
Enlightenment philosophy defended rationality and idea of civilization against tradition/religion/superstition Ex. Azande and witchcraft—make rational Kula (Malinowski shows how this practice make sense to those who could have thought it was irrational) In Enlightenment ideas the concept of civilization was considered to be the highest form of human achievement. One goal of the Enlightenment was to break down tradition or religious understandings as the ultimate source of truth. “civilization can be defined as that which advances man's knowledge and virtue”, try to reason everything. Emic—from the perspective of the subject or the particular culture Etic—from the perspective of the observer as scientist Malinowski uses Social Idea that there are “forces” exerted at group organizational level that exceed the individual. “Social facts are the values, cultural norms, and social structures which transcend the individual and are capable of exercising a social constraint.” The social of nonhuman animals is less durable precisely because they lack multigenerational institutional structures. Boas Uses culture Traditions, beliefs, and behaviors, and customs transmitted by learning. Who has culture?Was thought to be a defining characteristic of “Man” (Humans) Boas rejects understandings of culture as evolution or stages and instead focuses on their uniqueness and cultural relativity. cultural relativism The idea that each culture was the product of a unique and particular history, and not merely generated by race and environment. His ideas are coming somewhat from German reaction to Enlightenment idea of civilization and progress of humans understood as a singular humanity. Progress of humanity as a whole becoming more rational through conscious acts and a break with tradition. He stuck to Charles Darwin's own conception of evolution: that change occurred in response to current pressures and opportunities. The new standards as applied to cultural anthropology required that ethnographers go on location, learn the language, and undertake an intense survey that include all the elements (mythology and tribal lore, religion, social taboos, marriage customs, physical appearance, diet, handicrafts, means of obtaining food, and so on) well as whatever other unique feature that were apparent.
Herder claims that develop of any individual person is limited to “genius” or “spirit” of the group to which the individual belongs. essential quality to a particular culture. going against civilization, defend the tradition. This concept of culture was therefore difficult to define and had a spiritual unchanging, and ideal aspect to it in Herder and this has come into the history of anthropology. Thinking of essence is thinking that there is some essential quality, aspect, substance, or ideal that defines what something is, then I am thinking of something as an ideal type, unchanging and eternal, and thinking is spiritual or metaphysical at its core. Herder thought about culture as tradition, nation, place and the “spirit” of a people. These ideas thought of culture as unconscious and natural, almost like an organism. civilization/culture and civilization/savage Definition of Culture High culture—the arts of the upper classes. Tylor’s definition of culture is “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”. “Tylor had an idea of evolution of culture…. “savagery” through “barbarism” to “civilization”. Culture was considered as a whole an integrated system, all aspects of a culture are related to all others. How do “we” break up a whole:One way is to create spheres of culture Ex. we can talk about the economic, the political, the religious or law. A holistic approach wants to look at how all aspects of human society/culture influence each other and cannot really be separated. Cultural holism can help us see connections between different aspects of a society.
can also lead to overly bounded view of culture. An overly bounded view of culture can limit looking at understandings of temporality, change , history, power, and global connections. Dualistic Terms: two opposed aspects Objectivity/subjectivity Civilized/savage Rational/irrational Functionalism Malinowski thought that what he considered to be basic and universal human needs were met by different rituals, institutions and other social formations in different societies or cultures.
Malinowski wanted to show the rationality of all humans, as well as to explore what he considered to be a universal human nature. So, cultures are all different, but human nature is the same in this view of humans. Concept of coeval—that all people share the same historical time on the planet Time as a problem in cultural concept: evolution of types of cultures, at stake in a bounded view of culture. evolution versus history/change, evolution seems natural and not political. Need to think about: History, Exchange, Conflict, Conquest, Power Malinowski’s approach was one that considered its methods to be rigorous, objective, and scientific. One can observe (and participate) and ultimately know about the structures and functions of a society or culture. Boas and Mead also do not problematize their ability to make what they consider to be truthful claims about an entire culture or society. Symbolic Anthropology Geertz still looks at a culture as a bounded whole that can be described. The difference with Geertz’s approach is that he thinks specifically about how the anthropologist interprets the symbolic interpretations of a culture. Here anthropology is an interpretation of an interpretation and not a science looking for “laws” of a culture/society. Geertz believed that an analysis of culture should "not [be] an experimental science in search of law but an interpretive one in search of meaning" Geertz defined culture as "an historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate,perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and their attitudes toward life” Interrogating truth in Coming of Age Anthropologists are interested in: Situated knowledge, relational knowledge, partial knowledge. Cocreation of ethnographer and interlocutor Importance of who one talks to: Samoan Chiefs different than Adolescent girls Difference of who goes to the field: Mead is 23 and female. Freeman is 66 and male. Difference of when one goes to the field: The 1920s are different from the 1960s. Topics in Mead and Freeman: All understanding is positional
We should consider the problem of “historical tracking” in anthropological practices Need to pay attention to stratification of a society in terms of gender, sex, class, rank etc. Need to pay attention to difference between public/private conversations and the effect that publication of anthropological knowledge can have on informants. Limits of any attempt to speak about or for a whole culture. Problematizes the culture concept.
Ethical concerns about representing the “truth” of a group—culture, ethnos, people. Need to think about partial, situated positioning of anthropological knowledge
Symbolic anthropology looks at key symbols and especially rituals to understand culture Synchronic study lets us see patterns and relations between elements like seeing the grammatical structure of a language. Synchronic study as opposed to diachronic study influences classic anthropology such as that of Malinowski, Mead, Boas and EvansPritchard. Synchronic—one point in time Diachronic—over time historical Symbol Something that represents or stands for something else (to someone) Language is symbolic What a symbol encompasses is not fixed within one culture but can change historically Symbolic understandings and extensions of symbolic categories can be quite different between cultures and different historic periods. Essence is the attribute or set of attributes that make an entity or substance what it fundamentally is, and which it has by necessity, and without which it loses its identity. does not engage with historical emergence, we don’t ban a timeless essence of a god. Current anthropology is generally an antiessence approach to knowledge Essence is interested in ideal types, does not think about history, does not think about process, does not think about relation, does not think about emergence. we are looking at a how meaning is derived relationally, how and when terms emerge. Essence type thinking has been used to try to define: categories of culture, race, ethnos, and sex defining something with its attributes, should be thinking historically, in terms of process, and relationally. historical thinking wants to know how something emerged, it is always relational and process oriented. we want to know how something became what it is, how categories and concepts emerged, how concepts and categories are defined in relationship to each other.
We need to look at power within societies and cultures. We need to look at how power operates to create distinction, class, rank and hierarchy For example Malinowski was studying the men of high rank when he followed the kula exchange system. And Freeman was enveloped in certain status hierarchies when he interacted mainly with the chief class in Samoa. Categories help make worlds and worldview frosting/sauce (defined in relation to each other all becomes frosting) table clean/floor dirty only eat on table kids are making categories; getting their family to go along with “culture” that has “norms” and “power” in it. May even have some “knowledge”, “morality” or “power/knowledge” in these worldviews. Norms vary among different cultures. What you think should happen/natural, morality/ethic, knowledge. Everything is influenced by power/knowledge relationship. examples of categories that become norms, power, knowledge, relational meaning. taken for granted norms, what seems natural categories become normalized (norms) in relationship to power Norm= normal, normal becomes natural unchanging essential timeless truth of really real reality norm becomes an essence seen as not only the normal and the natural but also the correct, the law, the moral, the pure, and possibly the sacred. Power/Knowledge challenges idea that knowledge has no relationship to power, politics, or effecting world and that truth is outside of human power relationships, slash represents they go together, cannot separate. look at how knowledge (disciplinary knowledge) has effects on the world. The discipline creates who you are/who you can become, ex. educational system forms subjects that gets embodied in students in which you reject other dispositions. look at how understandings of cultural evolution influenced thinking about development theory and practice. how development theory (tied to cultural evolution) has power in the world to organize. power always has its knowledge body is important in understanding of power/knowledge body is disciplined, one becomes a certain kind of subject with certain capacities from disciplinary practices. ex. the schoolsitting in a chair, the prison, the factory forms of power/knowledge in particular locations produce specific disciplined bodies and dispositions
“you are certain person, certain capacities from these experiences” ex. working long hours Sugar luxury item → everyday consumer item for workers Industrialization, capitalist type forms starts in the history of the plantation system. system of labor slavery, indentured labor, factory labor emergence of slavery system and proletariat (working class) both connected to sugar and their production and consumption. biological substance part of plant and what it does to human body, human evolution. food has relationship to rank, power, status, mentality. What cultural forms are mobilized around the consumption of sugar? How do common foods create culture/worldviews? related to taken for granted? how is production/consumption related to understandings of morals and ethics? issues of the body, intense reactions involving the body who gets what? and why do they get it Taboo prohibition because too sacred or too accursed. forbidden to profane (not sacred) use or contact because of what are held to be dangerous “supernatural” powers banned on grounds of morality or taste only permitted for certain categories of person banned as constituting a risk Purity/pollution categorized through power, norms, cultural forms, what someone considers as polluted is different from one culture to another sacred/profane sacredrevered, holy purity/danger “dirt in the garden is ok, but not in the bedroom” Eternal is not the same as synchronic eternal is similar to timeless but synchronic is one moment in a linear historical time. Subjective does not equal bias or error, it’s part of intersubjective conversation, want to know what it means by objectivity. subjectivity seen as bias or false is a normed, power/knowledge categorical formation of the U.S Relational meaning: categories defined in relationship to each other and not with essential attributes
grammar operates as a structural system of reading helps to see how system works as opposed to thinking that the categories of a particular knowledge system are a true, normal, and natural description of ultimate reality. Karl Marx For Marx the commodity was a strange phenomena Marx thinks that capitalist ideology makes us see the commodity as having a value that is inherent (essential) to it. ex. brushing hair, the idea of brush capitalist worldview tend to see a world of things because they are commodities and not relations or process therefore we often equate value to some essential quality or essence of a commodity, ex.gold has value because it has gold essence, we see value in chair because of its chairness when it becomes a commodity or exchange by money, the value of the chair is coming from the chair itselfessence thinking. He says chair has value because of its labor and relationship of production. The commodity fetish Fetishism to make sense of the apparently magical quality of the commodity, refer to primitive belief that godly powers can inhere an inanimate things. fetish attempt to understand radically different conceptions of what is valuable, something that someone else values that the speaker does not understand why she/he values it. desire shouldn’t have because it doesn’t have value, Marx: “you love commodities in an irrational way, ignoring labor”, opposite of Boas and Malinowski. looking at how savage consumers are. the commodity remains simples as long as it is tied to its use value. when a piece of wood is turned into a table through human labor, its use value is clear and as product, the table remains tied to its material use. however, as soon as the table emerge as a commodity, it changes into a thing which transcends sensuousness. the connection to the actual hands of the laborer is severed as soon as the table is connected to money as the universal equivalent for exchange. people in a capitalist society thus begin to treat commodities as if value inhered in the objects themselves rather than in the amount of real labor expended. ex. apple products, factory workers jump off of the building Mercantilism economic theory practice, promoted governmental regulation of a nation's economy for power, sell as much commodities as they can, raw materials come into europe and make commodity, send it back to colonies and colonies have to buy that product, history of european competing each other in terms of trade through acquiring colonial land, see colony as part of their system, system in which european colonialism gets going.
Strange/Familiar study how another group cuts up “reality” into different categories. Make this strange worldview seem not strange, but understandable. The categories can be unconscious like how one knows a grammar of a language to use it but cannot explain it or even recognize the different categories in use. cutting the world in different categories: language makes differences, malinowski figuring out the function of kula. one can see the categories that one use in their own culture from learning about those of another group and making comparison taking for granted. make familiar worldview seem strange, start to be able to see it. through the lens of categories in another world. we are studying different interpretations of the world, doing analysis of analysis. one can say that this is an error or false way of thinking, one can also say that this is a correct view of the world, but anthropologists most interested in looking at different types of categorical systems to look at what kind of world a particular kind of dividing up the world procedures, study it as cultural form, what kind of world that has two positions and which is more “fair” one? understand the logic of something in its own terms. Norms when a categorical understandings being the dominant ones in a particular place or time then it’s a norm. Norm is a result of power/knowledge system. natural as if created by the world itself and not created by particular cultures/or political and economic systems are creating the categories, changeable by political economic system or action. View of dividing culture european colonialism meeting of very different conceptions of reality in very unequal power relationships. It is from this historical reality that anthropology emerges. Different reality systems that happen in unequal power relationship, attach to idea of value. other is savage, irrational, backward. For Malinowski and Boas etc other is rational, deserving of respect, look at the world that this system produces. Cultural relativity Do not have to say if it is error or correct, but what kind of world does it produce what is happening in that culture? from within the logic of its system, look at each one as they are. Coeval everybody emerge at the same time and have the same history, no progress. how could people have less history than other people? progressive slowly get better has to have a value system, problematic because of opposition of views. How time is often ignored in ethnography as coevalness is usually denied to the other.
Critiques Culture concept has been critiqued for producing “ethnographic time” (eternal forever) and an idea of culture that seems like an timeless essence while at the same time ignoring: history, power, and global connections. Need historical and conceptual perspective. They often look at their own culture or taken for granted and question it with what they learn from other cultures or taken for granted categorical systems. Value kula see a world of relation supply and demand, object has to be created in the culture commodity fetish see a world of things; laborers seem half dead, want the labor hidden because of exploitation. inherent attribute of a substance essence use value focus on labor as the source for value see relations of production;able to see the laborer and the relationship between the laborer and the consumer remember that the origin of the word fetish comes out of colonialism and radical differences in what is considered valuable between portuguese colonist and people in africa. what happens in a world where each different conception of value is the one that is considered correct? what world is produced? human is commodity, no longer a laborer burma shrimp labor Jamaica Kincaid brings us up to date from history of colonialism sugar producing island, after slavery is outlawed. POSTcolonialism, how is it present in Kincaid’s narrative? Antiguans don’t benefit from the tourist industry of global economic system. The tourist may experience the beauty on the surface of Antigua while being wholly ignorant of the actual political and social conditions that the tourism industry reinforces. hierarchical structure still present. depend on tourism to improve economy, but tourism is affecting their culture. Life and Debt ties structural inequalities between nations to international monetary structures look at how debt functions so that the debtor cannot get out of their debt the one who owes money has the ability to dictate policies within a nation tied to older world system such as colonial mercantilism and plantation system is Jamaica now worse than when it was dominated? no economic strength from independence the particular system of the way it has to be IMF debt keeps going up, impossible to pay off the debt talking as if policy has to be that way, natural system IMF
IMF wanted to devalue the Jamaican currency, the reason behind it was to expand the exports so it would be cheaper for other countries to buy their products. the devaluation leads and demand of imported goods lead Jamaica to a deeper debt. fieldwork can ignore histories of trade, colonialism, slavery, debt, and austerity regimes (reduce spending/increase taxes) ?? outside of power/knowledge relationship. for IMF policies are natural and law like, they are what has to happen according to laws of economics the powerful get to impose their rules;being owed to debt is powerful position to name terms no trade barriers for jamaica;milk production subsidized in the u.s, europe, and canada owe money get to set the rules debt might never get paid off, credit card Small Place The bad behavior of individual English people never seems to affect the general reverence for English culture. People of Antigua can express themselves only in the language of those who enslaved and oppressed them. connection between colonial past of the island and its impoverished, corrupt present. The lives of others, no matter how poor and sad, are part of the scenery tourists have come to enjoy essence of tourism Antiguans have been taught to admire the very people who once enslaved them. It is the people from the “large places” who determine events, control history, and even control language, antiguans became passive objects. Their ministers claim to be working for the greater good while lining their own pockets just like the British claimed to be bringing civilization to the colonized territories while actually exploiting them and taking from them as much as they could. The status of the library is emblematic of the status of the island as a whole: damaged remnants of a colonial structure remain, but the Antiguans are unable either to repair it or to move on to a new structure, Japanese cars owned by government officials for car loans money making scheme Antigua is the ultimate “small place,” and its struggles are like those of all such places as they try to define themselves against the “large” places and forces of the world. Outsiders are “locked out” of understanding what the lives of the insiders are truly like. The insiders are “locked in” in a similar way—they belong to the landscape more than it can ever belong to them.
Social darwinism and herbert spencer social darwinism is cultural evolution, not darwinian evolution in biology class. has a telelology a goal, idea of progressing to an ideal end point that is predetermined believes in progress, capitalist western culture is the end goal. spencer inspired by darwin, missing darwin’s main points there is no reason that humans have to evolve, we are not the end of anything spencer believes in progress, he coined the term survival of fittest spencer thought he was uncovering “laws” of social science something in universe that organizes a goal or direction to the universe conservation of energy part of theory lamarckian traits acquired in one lifetime passed on rich is fit and we are all unfit, not being european is not being “fit” mixed biological and cutlural idioms thought the most fit were rich capitalist therefore the poor of all backgrounds and those who were not european thought to be less fit and not worthy idea of progress in it, idea that life has a goal. darwinian theory has no concept of progress or gal in it fitness is not an absolute category in evolutionary theory. fitness is not a universal principle, but depends on a particular environment environment changes and organism changes, there is no hierarchy no ultimate progress in spencer, capitalism considered to be the most evolved Development declaration of human rights altruistic need greater productivity focus on technology claim to be beyond politics who could be against development? ultimate form of power/knowledge to deny any connection to power we are just trying to do “good” natural, eventually everyone will be in a capitalist society evolutionist in the sense of cultural evolution and social darwinism prophetic the future endpoint is this and i know it already, no historical frame, history is not what had to happen. Undevelopment avoid history and politics because we view development as part of life and if people aren’t developed at the same pace then there is problem in their “nature”. denying that certain colonies could create their industry other countries should model themselves after the west
what does backward mean? racism is not biological fact but social, political, historical fact no biological basis but real two people are coded a particular race, two people coded another race, genetic analysis is more likely that there is more genetic similarities between the groups than within the groups reflect instead an evolutionary response to “shared environmental exposures. Hall calls a floating signifier because its meaning and what justifies its reality shifts historically Genes that affect skin pigmentation or blood proteins involved in malarial resistance, the authors note, may not measure direct and unique ancestry but reflect instead an evolutionary response to “shared environmental exposures.” Furthermore, the tests are based on comparisons to databases of DNA from living populations, and are therefore vulnerable to “systematic bias” because of “incomplete geographic sampling” or the fact that “presentday patterns of residence are rarely identical to what existed in the past. only a fraction of people with a gene variant linked to a disease actually become ill. Hall logic of how it works, and cultivated in our imagination intelligence civilized, racist believe not result of our environment or genetic inferior mental capacities hall argues with discursive position, analyze the stories told by culture about what physical racial differences mean Hall grouping of centralized characteristics , when the system of classification become the object of disposition of power, become this group should be treated that way the use of classification as system of power way of maintaining the order of the system, one group has a much more positive value than other group Mary Douglas “matter of out of place”, purity and pollution. dirt in the garden belongs to the garden not bedroom. within in the order when somebody disturbs the natural order of who gets what and why and know how aspects are divided then tension occurs function as common code of society how definitions are raised? everything kind of inscribed of their species being concept of essence Floating Signifier systems and concepts to a culture that’s making meaning to a culture, shifting relations of difference, relational (things are connected) not essential and never be finally fixed. resignified in different cultures, moments of time, and history biological, genetically (without trace) and sociohistorical race more like a language
it’s reality, seeing around you race can’t be tested against diversity but within the differences that we construct in our “language” discursive concept the systems we use to make sense to make human societies intelligible, how we organize and make meanings, understanding of difference to ideas that difference organize human practices and individuals. differences occur but what matters is how make meanings and thoughts on those differences. how does discursive construct related to mintz sugar? It created identity in the aristocracy and later a manufactured sense of freedom among the working class “are they born another creation?”. religion understanding of signifer of knowledge and truth “them in the boats and us up on the civilization” genetically test humans to classify their differences and that they are different species, provide knowledge of absolute difference find what marks the difference INSIDE the species, whatever is in the discourse of culture that grounds the truth of human diversity, unpuzzle the human difference that matters, discursive construction Current historical approach to anthropology does not include:
1. an evolutionary and teleological stages approach such as cultural evolution, social darwinism, or modernization history
2. we are interested in contingent history and not some teleological (ultimate goal) oriented notion of progress that replaces history.
how your evidence relates to the conceptual or historical point you are making don’t overthink, be concise. why/how this is important in terms of anthropological practice or why the term is important to think about some aspect of how we can understand the world we live in or make changes to it. Du Bois color hair and bone Hall visual differences ascribed status little or no choice about occupying status achieved status not automatic, but come through traits, talents, actions, efforts, activities and accomplishments 500 different phenotypes in Brazil differences seem as an economic class how is racism constructed in a 500 different racial labels caste look phenotypically the same is this race? relationships of oppression marry people within their social group discrimination of koreans in japan Hall race works like a language subject to constant process of redefinition, meaning is relational not fixed
anti essence thinking one is defined by the other and does not make sense without the other black/white relational meaning overtime categories are not stable in their meaning, shifting their meaning race is biological, how it justified through religion. not to define by its attributes but in relation to other signifier a symbol, sound or image that represents an underlying concept or meaning discursive ordered by power/knowledge relationships Mary Douglas Purity and danger categorical who gets what, orders a society in terms of hierarchy and distinctions that are given moral ethical and political valence. symbolic value. matter out of place dirt is ok in the garden but not the house hegemonic norms of ruling class.