Assignment...FOR: ((Engineer_Ankit)) only please.

INVITATION TO Computer Science 1 1

Chapter 17 Making Decisions about Computers,

Information, and Society

Objectives

After studying this chapter, students will be able to: • Use ethical reasoning to evaluate social issues

related to computing • Describe the viewpoints of music users and music

publishers about the issue of music file sharing • Apply utilitarian arguments to ethical issues • Explain the social tradeoffs involved in lawful

intercept laws and their opposition • Explain the purpose of a dialectic process • Use analogies to evaluate ethical issues Invitation to Computer Science, 6th Edition 2

Objectives (continued)

After studying this chapter, students will be able to: • Provide arguments that support and oppose

hackers who claim to be performing a social good • Perform deontological analysis of the duties and

responsibilities of parties in an ethical issue • Describe cyberbullying and why legal remedies are

difficult to apply • Explain the potential downsides of sexting for those

engaged in it • Explain why information online may not be private

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Introduction

• Social and ethical issues related to information

technology are unavoidable

• Develop skills to reason about such issues

• Case studies introduce important ethical issues – Describe arguments for and against certain positions – Evaluate arguments in terms of ethics

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Case Studies Case 1: The Story of MP3—Compression Codes,

Musicians, and Money

• MP3 standard for compressing sound developed in 1987

• Patented and worldwide by early 1990s • Computer-based MP3 playback in 1997 • WinAmp application free on the Internet in 1998 • Users began transmitting and sharing MP3 music • Napster file-sharing system developed, 1999 • Peer-to-peer file sharing:

– Software introduces users to each other – Sharing happens directly between users

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Case Studies Case 1: The Story of MP3—Compression Codes,

Musicians, and Money (continued)

• Recording companies filed suit against Napster, 1999

• Lawsuit claimed Napster was a conspiracy to encourage mass infringement of copyright

• Facts: – Most shared music was copyrighted – Many artists opposed sharing---no revenue for them – Some artists supported sharing

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Case Studies Case 1: The Story of MP3—Compression Codes,

Musicians, and Money (continued)

• Napster claims: – Napster was just a “common carrier” – Napster reported song locations, was not involved in

actual sharing – They were not responsible for users’ behaviors – Swapping files this was should be “fair use” under

copyright law • Napster lost the case and appeals, and closed in

2001

Invitation to Computer Science, 6th Edition 8

Case Studies Case 1: The Story of MP3—Compression Codes,

Musicians, and Money (continued)

• Other sharing systems (Kazaa) arose • Paying to download music grew, iTunes • Sharing movies, legally or not, growing issue • Downloading images from the web for personal use • The ethical (not legal) question:

– Is it ethical to swap copyrighted MP3 music files?

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Case Studies Case 1: The Story of MP3—Compression Codes,

Musicians, and Money (continued)

• Ethics: the study of how to decide if something is morally right or wrong

• How do we judge right or wrong? • Consequentialism focuses on the consequences

of an act: on the whole good or bad outcomes • Utilitarianism: look at overall good for everyone

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Case Studies Case 1: The Story of MP3—Compression Codes,

Musicians, and Money (continued)

Utilitarian argument that MP3 copying is OK • There are many more music users than publishers • Music users are happy to get free access • Publishers get publicity for their products • File sharing is akin to hearing a song on the radio • Many users buy a song after listening to it • Drop in sales may relate more to purchasing song-

by-song rather than by album

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Case Studies Case 1: The Story of MP3—Compression Codes,

Musicians, and Money (continued)

Utilitarian argument that MP3 copying is not OK • Early on MP3 sharing encouraged CD sales, but

long-term trend is reduction in sales • iTunes and Amazon sell one song at a time to

compete with illegal file sharing • If publishers cannot profit, then less music will be

made • Copyright protection is the law, and MP3 sharing is

clearly illegal; encouraging illegal behavior is wrong

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Case Studies Case 1: The Story of MP3—Compression Codes,

Musicians, and Money (continued)

• Dialectic: a dialogue that explores an issue from both sides to lead to greater understanding

• Here: – Facts are that music sales have dropped

continuously – Long-term, argument that less music would be

published is a strong one – Lesser-known artists may use file sharing to get

better known, depend on income from performances – Rethink the music industry from a new viewpoint

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Case Studies Case 2: The Athens Affair—Privacy vs. Security

• Law enforcement needs to wiretap suspects’ phones

• Modern use of cell phones and VoIP complicates phone taps

• However, most/all phone calls go through computer systems

• Laws require all telecommunications to support “lawful intercept” systems for wiretaps

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Case Studies Case 2: The Athens Affair—Privacy vs. Security

(continued)

• Built-in LI systems are a target for hackers • In Greece hackers wiretapped 100 major business

and political leaders • No trace of who did it or why

• Ethical question:

– How does the decision to require LI software impact privacy and security

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Case Studies Case 2: The Athens Affair—Privacy vs. Security

(continued)

Ethical reasoning by analogy •Analogy-making is familiar to everyone •Analogies are never perfect: what aspects are important? •Apply decisions from one problem to another •Identify what doesn’t fit; often important aspect of problem

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Case Studies Case 2: The Athens Affair—Privacy vs. Security

(continued)

Analogy #1: LI is like requiring everyone to record their face-to-face conversations • Focused on VoIP (e.g., Skype) • Similarities between VoIP and face-to-face:

– Forms of communication – Meant to include a limited number – Possible for others to listen in – Easy access for others (requiring recordings) allows

abuses by government or hackers

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Case Studies Case 2: The Athens Affair—Privacy vs. Security

(continued)

Analogy #1: LI is like requiring everyone to record their face-to-face conversations • Decisions about face-to-face conversations:

– Private conversations are not monitored routinely – Monitoring only with court order and probable cause – We do NOT record all conversations all the time

• Implications by analogy for VoIP: – LI systems go beyond rules for private conversations – Without LI, law enforcement can still monitor as with

face-to-face conversations

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Case Studies Case 2: The Athens Affair—Privacy vs. Security

(continued)

Analogy #1: LI is like requiring everyone to record their face-to-face conversations •Problems with the analogy

– This argument would apply to normal phone tapping – Society accepts the need for some phone taps – What features of analogy don’t work? – Fourth party involvement: telecommunications

provider •Need an analogy that includes a middleman

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Case Studies Case 2: The Athens Affair—Privacy vs. Security

(continued)

Analogy #2: LI is like suspicious activity reporting in banking • U.S. banks must notify government when they see

suspicious transactions • Similarities between LI and SAR

– Both are critical resources for criminals, and require the help of external (law-abiding) entity

– Information helps to connect suspects with each other and discover networks of suspects

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Case Studies Case 2: The Athens Affair—Privacy vs. Security

(continued)

Analogy #2: LI is like suspicious activity reporting in banking • Decision about suspicious activity reporting:

– Banks should be required to report suspicious activity

• Implications by analogy: – Telecom companies should be required to report

suspicious activity

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Case Studies Case 2: The Athens Affair—Privacy vs. Security

(continued)

Analogy #2: LI is like suspicious activity reporting in banking • Problems with the analogy:

– Who initiates the sending of information differs (banks initiate, not government)

– The information provided is very different • Banks provide times, dates, and participants • Full recording of a conversation is much more details

• Supports storage of detailed call records • Does not support storage of whole conversations

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Case Studies Case 2: The Athens Affair—Privacy vs. Security

(continued)

After analogies, consider three possible solutions: 1.Require all VoIP systems to implement LI

2.Do not require LI; use physical eavesdropping

3.Require VoIP providers to report suspicious activities, but do not record conversations

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Case Studies Case 2: The Athens Affair—Privacy vs. Security

(continued)

Interested parties: • VoIP creators/providers

– Increased costs to build and store data; possible privacy lawsuits

• Law enforcement – Monitoring saves time and money, allows them to do

job better • The public

– Monitoring helps law enforcement, but decreases privacy and perhaps safety

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Case Studies Case 2: The Athens Affair—Privacy vs. Security

(continued)

Utilitarian analysis • VoIP creators/providers

– Option 2 is best for them, option 3 is worst • Law enforcement

– Option 1 is best • The public

– Option 2 reduces police effectiveness – Option 1 allows for abuses – Option 3 may also reduce police effectiveness

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Case Studies Case 3: Hackers—Public Enemies or Gadflies?

• Hackers: people who break into computer systems, launch Internet worms and viruses, vandalize web sites, etc.

• Some hackers are clearly criminals – Purposeless vandalism – Identity theft – Outright theft

• Some hackers engage in “hacktivism” • Can hacking a computer be a social good?

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Case Studies Case 3: Hackers—Public Enemies or Gadflies?

(continued)

WikiLeaks • Protects government and corporate whistle-blowers • Provides a secure way to share sensitive

documents anonymously • Video of U.S. firing on Reuters employees • U.S. diplomatic cables • One million confidential/secret U.S. government

documents • WikiLeaks is a public corporation with known

leadership Invitation to Computer Science, 6th Edition 27

Case Studies Case 3: Hackers—Public Enemies or Gadflies?

(continued)

Anonymous • Primarily interested in freedom of speech • No official leader or organizing body • Amorphous, secret membership • DOS attack in retribution for sanctions against

WikiLeaks • Attacks on government sites in Tunisia, Egypt,

Libya • Publication of e-mails from corporations Invitation to Computer Science, 6th Edition 28

Case Studies Case 3: Hackers—Public Enemies or Gadflies?

(continued)

Analogy: Breaking into a computer is like breaking into someone’s house •Similarities:

– Intruders are there without permission – Owners take precautions to discourage intrusion – Both are against the law

•Differences – Burglars take physical objects, depriving owner – Hackers, here, copy intellectual property – No threat of violence with hacking

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Case Studies Case 3: Hackers—Public Enemies or Gadflies?

(continued)

Utilitarian arguments •Owner of information loses control over it •Hacker gains access to information •Owner must increase security

– Increased awareness of vulnerability may be good – Increased security only required because of hackers

•Hard to see consequences •Must we distinguish between “good hackers” and “bad hackers”?

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Case Studies Case 3: Hackers—Public Enemies or Gadflies?

(continued)

Deontological arguments •Deontology: the study of duty and obligation •Focus on duties of actor and effect on other’s rights •Categorical imperative (Kant):

– Never treat a fellow human merely as a means to an end

•Focus on intent of an action, not consequences •Hackers for personal gain are unethical; ignore them •Focus on hackers who claim benign intent

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Case Studies Case 3: Hackers—Public Enemies or Gadflies?

(continued)

Parts of the hacker ethic (Steven Levy): •“All Information Should Be Free”

– To make decisions, people need good information – Hackers should always spread information

•“Mistrust Authority—Promote Decentralization – Bureaucracies and rules prevent things from getting

done – Each hacker should act individually as she or he

sees best

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Case Studies Case 3: Hackers—Public Enemies or Gadflies?

(continued)

Ethical critique of hacker ethic •The information being shared does not belong to the hacker •Does not respect other people’s wishes or safety •Rules exist because we, as a society, expect electronic privacy •Why should their ethic override other people’s wishes •Does hacking treat other people as a means to an end?

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Case Studies Thinking Straight About Technology and Ethics

• “Paramedic Ethics:” know a little and know when to ask

• Ask these questions when facing an ethical problem: – Who are the stakeholders in this situation? – What does each stakeholder have to gain or lose? – What duties and responsibilities are important? – Can you think of an analogous situation? Does it

clarify the situation? – Make a decision or repeat in dialectic form

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Case Studies Case 4: Genetic Information and Medical Research

• Fictional ethical situation: Family doctor asks you to participate in a study of genetic diversity and disease by donating some skin cells. Cells are identified by a randomly assigned number and your zip code. Should you donate?

• Who are the stakeholders? – You – Family doctor – Pharmaceutical company, “PHARM CO” – Skin cell donors to study, in general – People with genetic disease

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Case Studies Case 4: Genetic Information and Medical Research

(continued)

• What is at stake? – You lose a few skin cells – Your privacy:

• PHARM CO may seek to learn your identity • Transmission of genetic data could be intercepted

– Your doctor might be paid for finding participants – PHARM CO may develop new drugs – Drugs could help people with genetic diseases

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Case Studies Case 4: Genetic Information and Medical Research

(continued)

• Identify duties and responsibilities – Doctor has duty to treat you and protect your privacy – You have a duty to pay doctor and follow instructions – PHARM CO has duty to develop safe drugs – PHARM CO has promised to pay doctors for finding

participants – PHARM CO has promised to respect your privacy

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Case Studies Case 4: Genetic Information and Medical Research

(continued)

• More complex duties and responsibilities – Should you get royalties if your information leads to

a profitable drug? – Does PHARM CO own genetic information, or

should it be shared freely? – Why is zip code is part of encoding? – Do you have a duty to help cure disease?

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Case Studies Case 4: Genetic Information and Medical Research

(continued)

• Think of analogies – Compare to Red Cross blood donations

• Both involve confidential health information • Both ask for volunteer donors • Both have collectors and users who are paid • Both involve altruistic reasons for donation • Blood is the valuable item, genetic information in skin

cells is the value • Company might or might not find usefulness in cells • Company driven by profit and loss

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Case Studies Case 4: Genetic Information and Medical Research

(continued)

• Think of analogies – Compare to for-profit companies that solicit money

for a charity • Confidentiality is an issue for both • In both, volunteers are asked to donate by someone

with financial interest in the donation • Both involve altruistic motivations • One involves donated money, the other does not • Doctor and pharmaceutical roles don’t quite match for-

profit company

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Case Studies Case 4: Genetic Information and Medical Research

(continued)

• Make a decision or loop again – Must you decide right now (while at the doctor)? – Should you do more research? – Should you ask others? – Might choose to decline unless you know more

about PHARM CO’s use of your information, especially given the financial interests of other stakeholders

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Personal Privacy and Social Networks

• Apply the reasoning from case studies to more personal ethical issues

• Cyberbullying: humiliating, taunting, threatening, invading someone’s privacy online

• Sexting: sending sexually explicit messages or images using cell phones or tablet computers

• Privacy expectations for public postings to social networks

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Personal Privacy and Social Networks (continued)

• Cyberbullying examples – Megan Meier committed suicide after being

harassed on MySpace. Harasser was mother of former friend

– Information posted to Craigslist led to young girl receiving sexual phone calls and e-mails

– Tyler Clementi committed suicide after his roommate posted a recording of a sexual encounter with another man

• Laws lag behind the problem • First amendment protections complicate the issue Invitation to Computer Science, 6th Edition 43

Personal Privacy and Social Networks (continued)

• Sexting between consenting adults is legal – Images intended to be private between two

individuals may not stay that way – Once something is posted on the Internet, it is there

forever • Sexting involving minors may be considered child

pornography, even if perpetrator is the “child”

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Personal Privacy and Social Networks (continued)

• Privacy expectations with public postings online: – Student posted nasty story on MySpace about her

hometown, she deleted it six days later – Hometown high school principal saw the story, gave

it to the local newspaper – Newspaper printed it as a letter to the editor – Family was threatened, lost business, had to move

away • Courts found that she should have no expectation

of privacy when making a public posting on MySpace

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Personal Privacy and Social Networks (continued)

• Assume that anything sent or posted online – May become widely distributed and public – Will last forever

• Don’t post something if: – You don’t want a large number of people to see it – You would be embarrassed to have it widely

circulated (to parents, employers, etc.) – The material could be considered libelous or

defamatory – The information is private and of a sexual nature

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Summary

• Computer technology intrinsically involves new social and ethical issues

• Ethical reasoning provides a framework for analyzing ethical issues

• Utilitarianism evaluates an act based on its consequences

• A dialectic is a comparative discussion of opposing sides intended to clarify and improve understanding

• Reasoning by analogy can clarify issues of an ethical problem

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Summary (continued)

• Deontological reasoning focuses on intent rather than outcomes

• Ethical issues with information technology include: – Copyright protections in an era of file sharing – Personal privacy and lawful intercept laws – Hackers who claim to be a social good – Privacy and the protection of personal information – Cyberbullying, sexting and distribution of online

postings

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